CROP STORAGE IN ANCIENT SYRIA: A FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS USING ETHNOGRAPHIC MODELLING. AMR NAWAR AL-MOUAYAD AL-AZEM. THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF Ph.D. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY. 1 A b strac t. The aim of this thesis is to examine critically crop storage residues from two third millennium sites in north Syria, and to attempt to identify the purposes for which they have been stored. Existing methods for identifying and distinguishing archaeological samples of different crop products and byproducts in storage are inadequate, and hence the purposes for which they were intended are often misunderstood or misinterpreted. Examples of products which have not previously been identified in the archaeological record include "Frikkeh", "Burgul", and roast barley. In order to address this problem, an attempt is made to assemble a model based on modern ethnographic data. This model allows us to identify these different products and byproducts in storage, and to establish their relationship, within certain limits. This in turn allows us to establish the purpose for which these products were stored. The model is further strengthened by establishing the antiquity of these processes via existing textual and archaeological evidence. The model is then applied to the archaeological plant remains recovered from two sites in north Syria: 'Tell Brak", and "Tell Kerma", with the aim of identifying: 1. The various crop products and byproducts stored, and the purposes for which they were intended. 2. Crop storage contexts or areas in which crop processing activities leading to storage may have occurred. 2 List of Contents. Abstract. 2 Table of Contents. 3 List of Tables. 8 List of Figures. 9 Dedication. 12 Acknowledgements. 13 General Introduction. 14 Section 1: Assembly of the Ethnographic Data. Chapter 1: Background and General Information. 1.1 Introduction. 17 1.2 Interviewing Strategy. 18 1.3 The Village Sites Visited. 19 1.4 Problems Encountered. 20 1.5 Climate and Geography. 21 Chapter 2: Ethnographic Data. 2.1 Introduction. 29 2.2 The Crop Processing Cycle of Wheat and Barley .......................................29 Chapter 3: Crop Processing Activities Directly or Indirectly Related to Crop Storage. 3.1 Introduction. 59 3.2 Winnowing. 60 3.3 Sieving. 61 3.4 Grain Dunking. 63 3.5 "Frikkeh". 63 3.6 Grain Roasting. 65 3.7 "Burgul". 66 3.8 Storage of Grain and Other Products. 67 3 3.9 Summary, and Organisation of Processes into Correct Sequence. .................................................................. ..............................84 3.10 Simplified chart showing the different stages at which crop products and byproducts are stored. ....................................................................87 3.11 Glume Wheat Processing Steps. .................................. ..............................89 Chapter 4: The Antiquity of the Processes. 4.1 Introduction. ..............................91 4.2 The Archaeological Sources. ..............................91 4.3 Textual Sources. ..............................93 4.4 Source Abbreviation and Chronology. ..............................93 4.5 Georgica Sumerica. ..............................95 4.6 The Evidence. .............................. 101 4.7 Conclusion. .................................... 133 Section 2: Assembly of the Modern Plant Samples. Chapter 5: Sampling and Analytical Procedures. 5.1 Introduction. .....................................137 5.2 The Relationship Between Composition Classes, Observed Activities and Settlement Contexts. .............................. 137 5.3 Sampling Procedures. .....................................139 5.4 Analytical Methods. .....................................140 5.5 Choice of Processes to Sample. .....................................141 5.6 Discussion. .....................................143 Chapter 6: Identification and Interpretation of Crop Compositions. 6.1 Introduction. ..................................... 145 6.2 Characteristics used for Identification. ..................................... 145 6.3 Further Points. ..................................... 153 6.4 Simplified Processing Sequence; showing association of weed seed categories with major products and byproducts. .............................. 154 6.5 Classification of weeds according to the Seed Categories 4 outlined above. 155 6.6 Other Non-Seed Contaminants. 156 6.7 Brief Description of the Major Classes of Composition Found in Crop Products and Byproducts. 157 Chapter 7: Statistical Analysis. 7.1 Introduction. 194 7.2 Discriminant Analysis. 194 7.3 Data Preparation. 195 7.4 Results. 197 7.4a Use of Logarithms. .............................. 198 7.4b Use of Straw Nodes and Rachis. .............................. 198 7.4c Use of Five Clusters. .............................. 199 7.5 Discussion. .............................. 199 7.6 The Model. 200 7.7 The Archaeological Applicability of the Model. 202 Section 3: Assembly of the Archaeological Data. Chapter 8: The Archaeological Information. 8.1 Introduction. 227 8.2 Tell Brak. 227 8.2a Area FS. 229 8.2b Phase 3: Late Agade Buildings. 229 8.2c Phase 2. 231 8.3 Tell Kerma North. 233 Chapter 9: Sampling Strategy. 9.1 Tell Brak. 249 9.2 Tell Kerma North. 249 9.3 Analytical Methods. 250 Chapter 10: Statistical Analysis of Archaeological Plant Samples. 10.1 Introduction. 265 5 10.2 Data Preparation. 265 10.2a Clusters. 266 10.2b Variables. 266 10.3 Results. 267 10.4 Discussion and Interpretation. 267 10.4a Brak Scattergram (fig. 45). 268 10.4b Kerma Scattergram (fig. 46). 269 Chapter 11: Frikkeh. 11.1 Introduction. 277 11.2 Identification of Frikkeh. 278 11.2a Infrared Spectroscopy. 279 11.2b Kerma Samples. 280 11.2c Discussion. 280 Chapter 12: Interpretation of Archaeological Contexts. 12.1 Introduction. 282 12.2 Tell Brak. 282 12.3 Summary and Conclusions on the Plant Remains Recovered from Tell Brak. 289 12.4 Tell Kerma. 291 12.5 Summary and Conclusions on the Plant Remains Recovered from Tell Kerma. 295 12.6 Further Comments and Recommendations for Further Research. 297 Chapter 13: General Summary and Conclusion. 300 Appendices. Appendix 1: Ethno-Agricultural Questionnaire for the Near East 302 6 Appendix 2: Description of an Ard Type Plough Found in the Alawite Mountains. .324 Appendix 2: Transportation of Crops in the Alawite Mountains using a "Shaher". 326 Appendix 4: Further Notes on "Frikkeh" and the Turkish "Firig". 327 Bibliography 328 7 List of Tables. Table 1: Summary of Climatological Data. ...................................................26 Table 2: Summary of Evidence. 135 Table 3: Sample Composition of Modern crop products and byproducts. ...........159 Table 4: Standardised data. 204 Table 5: C.V.A. for 8 clusters scored on 6 variables. 207 Table 6: T.V.A. for 8 clusters scored on 6 variables. 208 Table 7: C.V.A. for 8 clusters scored on 8 variables. 212 Table 8: T.V.A. for 8 clusters scored on 8 variables. 214 Table 9: C.V.A. for 5 clusters scored on 8 variables. 218 Table 10: T.V.A. for 5 clusters scored on 8 variables. 219 Table 11: C.V.A. for 5 clusters scored on 8 variables. 222 Table 12: T.V.A. for 5 clusters scored on 8 variables. 223 Table 13: Phase 3 Tell Brak sample sources. 238 Table 14: Phase 2 Tell Brak sample sources. 239 Table 15: Tell Kerma sample sources. 240 Table 16: Tell Brak Sample Composition. 257 Table 17: Tell Kerma Sample Composition. 262 Table 18: Standardised data from Tell Brak. 271 Table 19: Standardised data from Tell Kerma. 272 Table 20: T.V.A. for Tell Brak. 273 Table 21: T.V.A. for Tell Kerma. 275 8 List of Figures. Figure 1: General map of Syria 23 Figure 2a: Detailed map of western Syria. 24 Figure 2b: Detailed map of southern Syria. 25 Figure 3: Hoe. 44 Figure 4: Ard type plough (from the Alawite mountains). 45 Figure 5: Ard type plough (southern Syria) 45 Figure 6: Yoke (Alawite mountains). ...........45 Figure 7: Ploughmans'goad (Alawite mountains). 45 Figure 8: Weeding sickles. 46 Figure 9: Crop harvesting sickles. 46 Figure 10: Harvesting of wheat in the Hassakeh region. 47 Figure 11: Small crop harvesting sickles for teaching children (Alawite Mountains). 46 Figure 12: "Mighmara", used for collecting sheaves in the Alawite mountains). 48 Figure 13a: A disused cart from the Raqaa region. 49 Figure 13b: Harvest cart from Palestine. 49 Figure 14: "Mi' calleh" (wooden hooks). 48 Figure 15: "Shaher" for transporting crops. 50 Figure 16: A "jarjar" frame. 51 Figure 17: Yoke from the Alawite mountains (used in conjunction with the "jarjar"). 54 Figure 18: The yoke in place on a mule during threshing. 52 Figure 19: Threshing sledge (tribulum) from the Hauran region (southern Syria). 53 Figure 20: Winnowing fork. 54 Figure 21: "Jarjar" in use threshing a wheat crop. 55 Figure 22: Tribulum in use threshinga wheat crop. 56 Figure 23: Wooden spade ("jaroof"). 54 9 Figure 24a: Heaping the threshed crop into a mound. ........... 57 Figure 24b: Beating threshed crop to compress it. ......................................... 57 Figure 25: Threshed crop protected from the wind by a "jerz" (Alawite mountains). ........... 58 Figure 26a: Winnowing in the Alawite mountains. ........... 70 Figure 26b: Winnowing in the Hassake region. ........... 71 Figure 27a: Coarse sieving in the Alawite mountains. ........... 72 Figure 27b: Coarse sieve byproduct. ........... 72 Figure 27c: Fine sieving in the Alawite mountains. ........... 73 Figure 28a: Emptying the fine sieve (grain dunking). ........... 74 Figure 28b: Grain dunking. ........... 75 Figure 29: Drying wet grain