Victorian Egyptology and the Making of a Colonial Field Science, 1850 – 1906 by Meira Gold Wolfson College Department of History and Philosophy of Science This thesis is submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Date of Submission: December 2019 Declaration This thesis is the result of my own work and includes nothing which is the outcome of work done in collaboration except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It is not substantially the same as any that I have submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for a degree or diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. I further state that no substantial part of my thesis has already been submitted, or, is being concurrently submitted for any such degree, diploma or other qualification at the University of Cambridge or any other University or similar institution except as declared in the Preface and specified in the text. It does not exceed the prescribed word limit for the History and Philosophy of Science Degree Committee. Abstract Victorian Egyptology and the Making of a Colonial Field Science, 1850-1906 Meira Gold This dissertation provides a new account of the origins of archaeological fieldwork in the Nile Delta. It considers how practitioners from diverse disciplinary backgrounds circulated knowledge about the built environment of pharaonic ruins: monuments, architecture, burials, and soil mounds that remained in situ. I trace the development of Egyptology from an activity that could be practiced long-distance through a network of informants to one that required first-hand field experience. By the turn of the twentieth century, archaeologists had demarcated the field site as a new space of scientific knowledge production, and designed field practices to claim intellectual and moral authority over Egypt. It is a project about the relationship between empire, locality, expertise, and invisible labour. These themes are examined through four case studies and divided into two parts, corresponding to the periods before and after the 1882 British Occupation of Egypt. The first part, “long-distance archaeology,” explores a set of routine practices in mid-Victorian Egyptology, whereby scholars based in London relied on informants to communicate archaeological knowledge from abroad through field records. I focus on long-distance investigations of Heliopolis and Memphis in the 1850s and Tell el-Yahudiyeh in the 1870s. The second section introduces what I term the “shift to the field,” an idea popularised by archaeologist W.M. Flinders Petrie, that Egyptological expertise could only be gained by sustained time spent in Egypt. I show that reliability and trust remained a consistent concern throughout this transitional period. The push for first-hand fieldwork was not simply about the revolutionary implementation of new methodologies, as previous histories have suggested, but primarily about becoming an expert witness to the credibility of excavations. The process of publicising Egyptian fieldwork in the periodical press and in books became a crucial mechanism for erasing the contributions of archaeological labourers and has shaped heroic mythologies of Egyptology that persist today. Acknowledgements This thesis has evolved considerably since it was conceived during my MA at the University of Toronto, due to the support of many. First and foremost, I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my incredible supervisor Jim Secord. His breadth of knowledge, constructive feedback, careful guidance, and encouragement has been constant. It is truly thanks to Jim that this dissertation came to fruition. I am fortunate that he has invested time and energy in my research. I would also like to pay special regards to my co-supervisor, Richard Staley, who always met with me on short notice, read drafts impressively fast, and helped develop my arguments in crucial ways. I am additionally grateful to my two examiners David Gange and Simon Schaffer. Their respective bodies of research have been influential on this thesis. They provided indispensable feedback and, for many years to come, my work will benefit from the rewarding discussion we shared during my Viva. My sincerest appreciation goes to the HPS community who supported me over several tumultuous years in Cambridge and who are too many to name in their entirety. I thank the faculty members who read and discussed my work with me at various points, or provided critical advice when it was most needed, particularly Anna Alexandrova, Mary Brazleton, Helen Curry, Nick Hopwood, Nick Jardine, Lauren Kassell, and Anne Secord. I also want to recognise Tamara Hug in particular, as well as Toby Bryant, Jack Dixon, Agnieszka Lanucha, James Livesey, Louisa Russell, and David Thompson for their valuable administrative assistance. Many thanks to my fellow PhDs and office mates for their solidarity and crucial venting sessions, and several HPS research fellows and teaching associates for whose advice and friendship I will be forever grateful. I am indebted to a wider network of historians who have welcomed me into their communities, invited me to workshops and seminars, and offered critical feedback and references. In particular, I thank William Carruthers, who inspired me to apply to HPS Cambridge and the EUI, as well as Margaret Maitland, Suzanne Marchand, Stephanie Moser, Daniel Potter, Kathleen Sheppard, Alice Stevenson, and Amara Thornton. I owe special gratitude to Christina Riggs whose enthusiastic support helped me land my first two postdoctoral positions. I also thank Stéphane Van Damme, Bernard Lightman, and Efram Sera-Shriar for their mentorship. I am thankful for the helpful staff at numerous archives: Angela Grimshaw, Francesca Hillier, and Patricia Spencer at the British Museum; Brigitte Bolanda and Stephanie Boonstra at the Egypt Exploration Society; Anna Garnett, Alice Stevenson, and Alice Williams at the Petrie Museum; Karen Moran at the Royal Observatory Edinburgh; and Michelle Gait at the University of Aberdeen Special Collections. Many thanks as well to the archivists at the Ashmolean Museum, British Library, Cambridge University Library, Griffith Institute, National Archives, National Library of Scotland, and Royal Institute of British Architects. I would like to acknowledge the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada who generously financed my masters and all four years of my doctoral studies. International fees in the UK are expensive. I am especially grateful to the Department of History and Philosophy of Science Trust Fund for awarding me an annual maintenance grant and Wolfson College Cambridge for meeting my funding shortfall with multiple studentships and travel grants. Thank you as well to the staff at Wolfson and my tutor Kevin Greenbank for sorting out my financial situation on a bi-annual basis. I would lastly like to recognize the Max Weber Postdoctoral Programme staff at the European University Institute who supported me in the final months of my PhD. Alyson Price was also helpful in proofreading my introduction. Portions of this thesis were written in Cambridge, UK, Florence, Italy, and Toronto, Canada. I have been fortunate for enduring friendships that have sustained me in all three places. Thank you to all my Cambridge friends, but especially my FND crew for late-night jams and generally taking my mind off work. Thank you also to my “Aswaby” housemates who enriched my experience—especially Leah, the most generous, loving, and supportive friend. My time in Cambridge would not have been the same without her. To my EUI family in Florence, Ari, Lachy, Lola, and Caitlin, thank you for being amazing friends when I was at my craziest. Thank you to my Toronto trio Alice, Jen, and Liana, for always being available, even when I was bad at skyping, and reminding me about life outside of academia. Special thanks to Jordan for introducing me to the history of science (!), for the best brainstorming sessions, sending me positive vibes from across the pond, and always believing in me more than I believe in myself. My acknowledgements would not be complete without thanking my family for their unconditional love and support. I seriously do not know how I would have coped without the “world’s okayest sisters” Elka and Reyla, throughout the PhD, but also, life in general. Thank you for making me laugh convulsively, spoiling me, and keeping me humble. I am especially appreciative that they spawned my adorable niblings Audrey and Alex who bring me so much joy and make me smile on the worst of days. Finally, thank you to my parents Marv and Melissa (aka Abba and Ima) who have always encouraged me to pursue my passions. Whenever they called to ask what I was working on, they were genuinely interested in the answer. They listened sympathetically on the bad days, celebrated my successes with me on the good days, and helped fly me home to Toronto for much needed breaks when I could not afford it myself. My mother inspired me to study archaeology as an undergraduate. In the final weeks before I submitted, she copy-edited and proofread my entire thesis with skill and, admirably, enthusiasm. Words cannot express my debt of gratitude. Contents Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 1 The Myths of Egyptological Fieldwork ..............................................................................................................