olicies olumes Special Forest Products: )logy of ill rival Integrating Social, Economic, (. In re- and Biological Considerations iired by have to into Ecosystem Management y flight: h econ- Randy Molina, Nan Vance, James F. Weigand, David Pilz, and Michael P. Amaranth us Global Perspectives and History 317 Regional Perspectives from the Pacific Northwest 318 Socioeconomic Considerations 321 Unknown Supplies 321 Changing Demands 322 Labor and Employment 323 Balancing Management Costs and Benefits 323 Adaptive Ecosystem Management Considerations for Special Forest Products 324 Understanding the Unique Biology and Ecology of Special Forest Product Species 325 Forest Community Dynamics and Landscape Considerations 327 Silviculture and Vegetation Management Approaches 328 Integrating Human Behavior 328 Conducting Necessary Inventory, Evaluation, and Research Monitoring 329 Adaptive Ecosystem Management of Commercial Mushroom Harvests 330 Acknowledgments 332 Literature Cited 332 Throughout history, forests have provided a wealth of often as recreational pursuits. For example, the tradi- beneficial and essential products ranging from foods tion of collecting and consuming wild edible forest and medicines to building materials. Ancient phar- mushrooms by Europeans and Asians continues by macopoeias list myriad forest plants and fungi for their descendants in North America. treating various ailments. Many of these ancient As societies modernized and depended less on the remedies have evolved and continue to evolve into diversity of wild products from forests, many of these the important drugs of modem medicine. Use of di- traditional uses diminished, some were forgotten, verse forest species remains commonplace around and others remained useful to onl y subsistence forest the world, particularly in cultures with strong rural dwellers or native inhabitants. Forest management in traditions. Even in the most technologically advanced the 20th century increasingly emphasized growing •ocieties, traditional uses of forest products continue, and harvesting trees for timber and fiber products as 315 316 Section IV. Forest Economics: Products and Policies its primary objective. Despite that emphasis, a small and implement inventory monitoring, and research entrepreneurial segment in forest-based communi- programs to ensure species protection and ecosystem ties continues to commercialize nontimber products health. from the forest, including foods, medicinal plants, Blending the management of special forest prod- and floral greens. Forest managers designated these ucts into the holistic objectives of ecosystem man- as "minor" forest products, thereby reflecting an at- agement will not be easy. The social structure and titude that they were less important than timber in composition of the industry differ from the typical the overall scheme of forest management. But the timber-based community. In the Pacific Northwest, economic impact of this industry and the quantities large numbers of migrant harvesters from various of products harvested can no longer be viewed as ethnic backgrounds are major participants in the in- minor. In the Pacific Northwest, special forest prod- dustry (Schlosser and Blatner 1995). A thorough un- ucts account for over $200 million in revenue derstanding of all the groups involved in the special (Schlosser et al. 1991). This amount is substantial forest products industry is essential to developing when compared to the $2.63 billion generated from effective communication and building common un- stumpage receipts to all landowners in Oregon and derstanding about management directions. The eco- Washington in 1989 (data derived from Warren 1995). nomic structure of the industry is also poorly under- Thousands of tons of biological materials from stood; market dynamics are difficult to track, so that dozens of species are removed annually from forest trends in the industry remain clouded. If special for- ecosystems. est products are to play a role in rural community de- The paradigm shift in forestry from timber man- velopment, these economies must be better under- agement to ecosystem management has heightened stood so that investors can assess the risks involved public awareness of the importance of the special in these enterprises. forest products industry. In addition, managers and The complex biology and lack of information on the public have increasingly recognized that special harvesting of special forest product species also pre- forest product species are important components of sent a significant challenge for integrative ecosystem forest ecosystems. Dramatic declines in revenue to management. Numerous federal and state laws exist rural forest communities from harvest of federal tim- to protect forest resources, including the National ber are increasing the importance of special forest Forest Management Act, National Environmental products industries in rural economic recovery and Policy Act, and the Endangered Species Act. Uncler development. The two largest public land agencies in strong environmental regulations and in a litig,iou, the United States, the Bureau of Land Management climate, resource managers require substantial (rat.) of the U. S. Department of the Interior and the Forest to support management decisions. Unfortunately Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, recog- baseline data on the effects of harvest, on markets, nize this importance and are developing regional and and on the biology, ecology, and productivity for national strategies for managing special forest prod- many special forest product species are either short ucts. These strategies emphasize four themes: (1) to term, incomplete, or nonexistent. Also lacking is in incorporate harvesting of special forest products into formation on responses by harvesters to economic an ecosystem management framework with guide- incentives and conservation measures set in place II\ lines for sustainable harvest, species conservation, land managers. Many of these species also play M I and protection of ecosystem functions; (2) to involve portant ecosystem roles, such as providing food tol the public, including industrial, Native American, and wildlife and capturing and cycling nutrients. Yet, ■%L: recreational users of these resources, in making deci- poorly understand these complex dependencies, an, sions about the future of special forest products on the consequences of harvesting special forest prod public lands; ( 3) to view the management of and ac- ucts on ecosystem function and integrity are largcl cessibility to special forest products as major factors unknown. To incorporate sustainable harvests of spy in assisting rural economic diversification in formerly cial forest product species within an ecosystem may timber-dependent communities; and (4) to develop agement context, resource managers and research 317 s 21. Special Forest Products must develop and implement research, inventory, tional lifestyles.Today, much of the expertise and wis- and monitoring protocols for these species and pro- dom of these cultures has already disappeared; our -n mote transfer of key information to affected and in- understanding of special forest products gleaned terested publics. from thousands of years of trial, error, and observa- Adaptive strategies for ecosystem management tion is consequently diminished. provide for diverse forest stands and landscapes and In the course of cultural evolution, other socioeco- d al for a wide range of values and products. Practices are nomic lifestyles have emerged, especially those based -tt, modified as more ecosystem and societal information on agricultural or industrial production. These agri- becomes available. Traditional forest management af- cultural and industrial societies coexist with hunter- fects the distribution and abundance of many special gatherer lifestyles, but at the same time change them forest products by shortening rotations of tree crops (Keene 1991). Today, large, single-product timber in- .al and growing only species and genotypes that pro- dustries operate side-by-side with smaller-scale cot- duce the highest timber yields. Although some spe- tage industries processing diverse forest products cial forest product species can thrive in homogenized and with individuals who gather special forest prod- or intensively managed forests, others cannot. Eco- ucts for subsistence, cash income, or recreation. In system management recognizes that the dozens of many rural societies around the world, forested at genera of plants and mushrooms and assorted other ecosystems continue to be the primary source of r- materials collected in the United States as special for- products used for food, fodder, fibers, housing, and e- est products are products of natural diversity; it medicines. •r- therefore adapts practices to help assure their sus- In industrial societies, advances in technology ed tainability. We are in the beginning of the adaptive and changes in patterns of economic exchange have phase of managing for special forest products. Some altered the scale and type of forest-products con- decisions must be made without sufficient informa- sumption and the relative social standing of hunter- - tion and adapted or modified as results from inven- gatherers. Over the last two centuries, industrial tm tories, monitoring, and research become available. economies have grown by using capital gained from ist This chapter develops a conceptual framework for rapid and effective exploitation of natural resources. -.al