Feminist Representations in North African Cinema by Haya Abdulrahman Al-Hossain B.A., August 1997, George Mason University M.F.A., December 2001, The American University M.Phil., January 2009, The George Washington University A Dissertation submitted to The Faculty of the Columbian College of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 15, 2011 Dissertation directed by Peter Caws University Professor of Philosophy The Columbian College or Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University certifies that Haya Abdulrahman Al-Hossain has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy as of March 23, 2011. This is the final and approved form of the dissertation. Feminist Representations in North African Cinema By Haya Abdulrahman Al-Hossain Dissertation Research Committee: Peter Caws, University Professor of Philosophy, Dissertation Director Todd Ramlow, Adjunct Professor of Women’s Studies, Committee Member Rachel Riedner, Associate Professor of Writing and Women’s Studies, Committee Member ii © Copyright 2011 by Haya Abdulrahman Al-Hossain All rights reserved. iii This dissertation is dedicated to my mother and father, Naima Al-Hamdan and Abdulrahman Al-Hossain and To my brother Emad Al-Hossain iv Acknowledgment I have always been involved in the process of creating something, from drawings as a child, paintings as I grew up, to poetry, screenplays, and films. Yet, writing this dissertation has been one of the biggest challenges I have undertaken. Without the help of the people in my life, from family, friends, colleagues, and professors, I would not have been able to reach the point of completion. I want to thank all the people that have been part of my life, for I have learned something from every person I have crossed paths with. More importantly, I want to acknowledge the wonderful filmmakers in my study, for creating great films that inspired and intrigued me to write this dissertation. I want to express my deep gratitude to Peter Caws, for showing interest in my topic, for being my mentor through the process of writing, and for always encouraging me to do more. I thank my committee members Todd Ramlow and Rachel Riedner for always challenging me with their insightful comments and support, and their enthusiasm and energy, which always pushed me to do better. I wish to also express my gratitude to my outsider readers, Kavita Daiya and Rebecca Dingo, for giving me an opportunity to work with them, and for allowing me to see my topic differently through their expertise and deep knowledge. I wish to acknowledge Marshall Alcorn and Gail Weiss who have always been there since the start of my studies at George Washington University, and both have been my guide and my supporters through the ups and downs of my years of study. I would like to thank my family for their love and support: my mother, Naima Al- Hamdan, for always pushing me to be a better person, and for her utter love and belief in v me; my father, Abdulrahman Al-Hossain, for teaching me the value of education from his experience as a Cultural Attaché and an educator, and for teaching me how to be strong in order to achieve my dreams; my sister Sausan, for introducing me to the love of cinema at a young age; my sister Lama, for her utter enthusiasm for life, and for always reminding me to do one small thing for myself during the long months of writing the dissertation; my brother Emad, for being the angel in my life; and my brother Abdulaziz, for the joy he brings to my heart, and for following in my footsteps to become a filmmaker. My friends have been an important part of my life. Without their help and support, I don’t think I would have been able to enjoy my life, or accomplish anything. I want to acknowledge all of them, and apologize to those who I did not mention in the following: Maysoon Al-Mazyed, for being my family and for always listening to my complaints; Meredith Tolan, for being my spiritual sister, and for her support, even though she lives so far away in Paris; Phil Hostak, for his love, and for always making me feel that I want to be as smart as he is; Erdal Sarper, for always reminding me that I can do it; Yvonne Hartmann, for always being my partner in crime; Alvaro Baquero, my Spanish other; Neeltje Van Horen, for being an example of strength and success; Jennifer Sieck, for her help and support throughout the process of writing, and Brutus, the dog, for his unconditional love. Last but definitely not least, I want to acknowledge my co-workers at the Consular section at the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia. Their support is greatly appreciated. vi Dissertation Abstract Feminist Representations in North African Cinema In this dissertation, I investigate some of the different issues that filmmakers in North African national and diasporic cinemas focus on. I examine the representation of women in films produced in Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia, in an effort to show the tools filmmakers use in order to question the hegemonic image of North African Arab and Muslim women as oppressed and marginalized. I focus on national identity as a discourse always in the process of changing, depending on the political and social circumstances each country goes through. Stressing national cinema, I reject Third Cinema as a theory and practice. My main argument in that regard is that Third Cinema limits filmmakers from the Third World in its categorization, and limits our own understanding of North African national cinema, under the umbrella of Third Cinema. I study the films that try to put the subject of women’s oppression as the focal point. The main points I argue are the representation of women within the national dialogue, and what filmmakers are trying to do to challenge the patriarchal social order in order to break the barriers between the public and domestic spaces. I also discuss the effects of Western Feminist discourse on the representation of women in the Third World. Dealing with the subject of displacement and alienation, I study the films made by and about North African immigrants in France. I focus on the subjects these filmmakers discuss in their films, mainly the representation of women’s narratives within an immigrant population, torn between two cultures. vii Through my investigation of North African cinema, I suggest the importance of developing a national cinema theory that will enable feminist filmmakers to deal with national and local issues in their films, rather than focusing on the approval of Western audience and critics, and depending on funding from Western organizations. I also argue that when it comes to feminist reading practices of films made in non-Western film industries, North Africa in this case, an international feminist film theory should serve as a better space for analysis and discourse. viii Table of Contents Dedication.......................................................................................................iv Acknowledgments............................................................................................v Abstract..........................................................................................................vii Introduction......................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: In Search of a Definition of National Identity .............................. 20 Chapter 2: North African Cinemas Between Third and National Cinema .... 69 Chapter 3: Approaches to Feminist Representation in North African Cinema.................................................................................... 121 Chapter 4: North African Diaspora and Beur Cinema .................................. 159 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 200 Works Cited ..................................................................................................... 208 ix Introduction “I’m a stranger everywhere.” --Naima in Exiles (2004) 1 While watching the film Exiles, I was struck by the statement that the main female character, Naima, makes when she first arrives in her country of origin, Algeria, after a long journey with her lover from France. This statement hit a very sensitive chord inside me. I do feel like a stranger everywhere. I am a Saudi Arabian woman, yet I only lived there for a very short period of time. I’ve been living in the United States for over eighteen years, but I’m not an American. In between, I have lived in several places in the Middle East and Europe. Growing up as a diplomat’s daughter was a privilege, but a privilege that deprived me of any sense of belonging. In the film, when a man asks Naima where she’s from, she replies: “I’m Algerian, via France.” It reminded me of my usual answer: “I’m Saudi, but I’ve only lived there for five years.” My answer usually reflects my need to defend my identity. It is true, I am Saudi, but that is not the only place that defines me. I come from everywhere, but I am a stranger everywhere. My identity is a collection of all the experiences that I’ve been through, and my sense of belonging is not limited to one place. I am Saudi. I am an Arab. I am a Muslim, and I am Western as well. In an effort to define my identity, I resorted to writing and filmmaking. When I was younger, I felt that my situation confused my identity. I was 1 Dir. Tony Gatlif. Perf. Romain Duris and Lubna Azabal. Swipe Films. 2004 1 unable to articulate it. The more I grew up, the more I realized the advantages of my situation. Having a hybrid identity allows me access to different cultures, understandings, and many educational opportunities. Film played, and still plays, a major role in my understanding of cultures, along with my own personal experiences within different cultures. With my studies in film, the question of women’s representation took a central focus. Realizing that there are no films that represent Saudi women, I began to study how other Arab women were represented in films.