Baldr and Lemminkäinen Approaching the Evolution of Mythological Narrative through the Activating Power of Expression A Case Study in Germanic and Finno-Karelian Cultural Contact and Exchange Frog UCL Dissertation submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 19 March 2010 2 I, Frog, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Frog. 3 Abstract The orientation of this study is to explore what the sources for each narrative tradition can (and cannot) tell us about their respective histories, in order to reach a point at which it becomes possible to discuss a relationship between them and the significance of that relationship. This is not intended as an exhaustive study of every element of each source or every aspect of each tradition. It will present a basic introduction to sources for each tradition (§3-4) followed by a basic context for approaching the possibility of a cultural exchange (§5-7). The APE and its “powers” are introduced with specific examples from both traditions (§8-13). This will be followed by sections on the activation and manipulation of “identities” from the level of cultural figures to textual and extra-textual entities (§14-16) followed by relationships of traditions to individuals and social groups who perform them, and the impact which this has on the evolution of tradition as a social process (§17-18). The study will then address more specific issues in relationships between source and application in the medieval and iconographic representations of the Baldr-Cycle where so little comparative material is available to provide a context (§19). This will move into issues of persistence and change in the broader tradition, opening the discussion of intertextual reference and the evolution of traditions (§20-22). The Baldr- Cycle and Lemminkäisen virsi will each be reviewed (§23-24). It will be shown that Lemminkäisen virsi most likely emerged as a direct adaptation of a version of the Baldr- Cycle as a consequence of contacts with Germanic culture in the first millennium of the present era, probably during the Viking Age. Lemminkäinen appears to have been established as a cultural figure at that time, and the adaptation was most likely intended to impact how Lemminkäinen was regarded as a cultural figure. The value of the Baldr- Cycle in this application appears attributable to existing features in the tradition ecology which allowed its motif-complexes to generate significant and relevant meanings (§25). This study is a case study approaching the evolution of mythological narrative as a historical process occurring through a conjunction of individual applications and social processes. This case study demonstrates the value of the APE and offers insight into the history of cultural contact and exchange in the Circum-Baltic region. 4 Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Viking Society for Northern Research, the UCL Department of Scandinavian Studies, the UCL Graduate School and the Finnish Literature Society for providing financial support for research trips and conferences, which has been invaluable in the development of my dissertation. I would also like to thank the University of Helsinki‟s Department of Folklore, which welcomed me as a visiting researcher, and the University of Uppsala‟s Department of Archaeology for their hospitality on my regular visits there. The researchers at the Folklore Archives of the Finnish Literature Society have my sincerest thanks for the time and trouble which they took for me – especially when the archives were under renovation. I also appreciate the help and support which I received at the Árni Magnússon Institute, Reykjavík. Academician of Science Anna-Leena Siikala has my heartfelt gratitude for taking me under her wing as my mentor in Finland, and becoming my academic mother. My dissertation would not be what it is without her counsel and support. My supervisor, Lecturer Christopher Abram, has been wonderful in his patience and always being ready to lend a hand – especially when I became entangled in bureaucracy. His comments and discussion have been indispensable in bringing this dissertation to fruition. His hospitality can, of course, not go unmentioned, for putting me up on my many short visits to UCL when I lived abroad. I deeply appreciate the comments, questions and observations of Professor Richard North and Professor Carolyn Larrington who were my opponents in the defence of this thesis. Professor Kaaren Grimstad, who was my undergraduate supervisor and became my dear friend, was also essential to this process, because had it not been for her, I would never have found this path, and even from afar, I have always felt her support along this road. I would also like especially to thank Director of the Folklore Archives Lauri Harvilahti, Professor Lotte Tarkka and Professor Pertti Anttonen for their advice and assistance which benefited my research, and also Professor Anne-Sofie Gräslund. There are so many to thank for discussions which helped me to work through the ideas and materials 5 of this dissertation, especially for offering quick responses and assurances in times of trial and stress, such as Professor Joseph Harris, Jūratė Šlekonytė, Tonya Kim Dewey Alaric Hall, and Senior Researcher Aleksandra Stepanova. I appreciate the participants in the University of Helsinki‟s Research Seminar on Folkloristics; the Oraalisuus, Muisti ja Traditio Seminar of the Finnish Literature Society and Nordic Centre for Medieval Studies; and the University College London Medieval Scandinavian Seminar, who shared their ideas and made their own works available, providing stimulating and insightful discussion on a spectrum of topics. This work has also benefitted from the many opportunities and unfolding dialogues which took place at conferences and summer schools in which I had the honour of participating, meeting collegues and new friends. I also have the greatest appreciation for the people who took the time and trouble to read through my work at its various stages and to offer their comments, suggestions and criticisms. Kati (Heinonen) Kallio‟s comments were of particular benefit, helping me avoid straying into error in the Ingrian material. Maximillian von Schwanekamp not only provided comments, but always made sure that I had a laptop to work on, and helped me navigate all manner of technical problem, including a hard-drive crash. More than anyone else, Eila Stepanova has patiently listened to me talk my way through theory and material, critiqued my pure reason, and also aided me in such practical spheres as helping me find sources and alleviating the tedium of data entry in the tables of examples. The last weeks and months surrounding this work‟s completion, her patience and support has been beyond belief, without which I would most likely have pulled out my beard in stress and frustration. She, more than anyone, has helped me survive this ordeal. Finally, I would like to thank my parents, who have given their unyielding support to my studies and research. When my funding for a year was delayed by four and a half months, my father managed to find money from empty pockets to make sure my rent was paid and I didn‟t run out of food, and my uncle Mel Laakso and his wife loaned me money to start my first year. However, there has been no greater support than from my mother, who put everything on the line to get me to London and undertake this degree. 6 There are no words which can convey how much her help, support and practical advice has meant to me across the years of this work. 7 Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 3 Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ 4 Contents ............................................................................................................................. 7 PART I: THE TRADITIONS ........................................................................................ 13 Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................. 13 Chapter 2: The Basic Narratives ................................................................................... 25 2.1. Lemminkäisen virsi – The Narrative ..................................................................... 25 2.2. The Baldr-Cycle: The Narrative............................................................................ 26 2.2.1. Frigg – Baldr – Loki ....................................................................................... 27 2.2.2. Óðinn – Baldr – Höðr – Váli .......................................................................... 28 2.3. The Deaths of Baldr and Lemminkäinen .............................................................. 29 Chapter 3: Sources for the Baldr-Cycle ........................................................................ 32 3.1. Snorri Sturluson‟s Edda ........................................................................................ 32 3.2. Saxo Grammaticus‟s Gesta Danorum ................................................................... 35 3.3. Medieval Scandinavian Poetic Sources ................................................................ 37 3.3.1. Eddic Sources ................................................................................................