Carleton University Frontier Farm Labour: A Study of Neoliberal Restructuring and Zimbabwean Migrant Farm Workers in Limpopo Province, South Africa A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts Institute of Political Economy By Lincoln Addison, B.A. (Hons.) Ottawa, Ontario August, 2006 © 2006, Lincoln Addison Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 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Abstract Over the course of the past decade, commercial farms in Limpopo Province have exploited increasing flows of Zimbabwean labour in an attempt to increase profitability and adapt to the more competitive environment ushered in by sectoral restructuring. Simultaneously, economic collapse within Zimbabwe and ongoing political repression have created unprecedented migratory pressures. While this thesis explores the role of neoliberal restructuring and the Zimbabwean crisis as driving the adverse incorporation of Zimbabwean migrants on commercial farms in Limpopo’s far north, it also considers the localized engagements of Zimbabwean farm workers with dominant paternalistic and class relations on particular commercial farms. Case-studies suggest, in particular, the importance of “regimes of payment” as central elements within hegemonic formations on commercial farms. Taken together, these considerations reveal some of the important intersections between the micropractices of Zimbabwean migrants and macroprocesses that surround them. n Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acknowledgements I have received such an enormous range of support in writing this thesis but limited space allows me only to name the most instrumental sources. None of this would have been possible without the support of my supervisor, Blair Rutherford, who introduced me to agrarian studies in Southern Africa and, more particularly, the study of farm workers. I thank him for the opportunity to carry out research in South Africa and for guiding me towards Anthropology. Linda Freeman has made a tremendous contribution to this study which has enhanced its quality. I am thankful for her teaching and valuable guidance. Donna Coghill, Administrator at the Institute of Political Economy, was a constant source of support and indispensable asset throughout my Masters Degree. In South Africa, a huge debt of gratitude is owed to Nkuzi Development Association with which I was affiliated while in Limpopo and, in particular, Shirhami Shirinda, for introducing me to the farms of Limpopo province. In addition, Mr. Shirinda and his family accommodated me while I was in Limpopo at their home in Bungeni, for which I am eternally grateful. Thanks are also due to the Programme for Land and Agrarian Studies (PLAAS) for hosting me while in Cape Town and Edward Lahiff and Ruth Hall in particular for discussing my research with me. I must thank all the farm workers, farmers, activists and other informants who took time to share their perspectives and experiences with me. To all my colleagues and comrades at Carleton, your friendship and insights have enriched my life and this work. John Adlington, Trevor Arbour, Aniket Bhushan, Eric Burton, Sam Cartmell, Matthew Garden, Keith Lau, Kevin Mcleod, Doug Nesbitt and Jessica Squires all have had considerable impact on my thinking. A perennial source of inspiration is my best friend, Paul Matthews, whose capacity for listening helped me conceptualize this thesis. I give thanks to my parents, who have supported me both financially and with direct input in this thesis. Most importantly, I thank God, who has guided me through all the challenges of this work and beyond. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table of Contents Abstract....................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents................................................................................................................... iv Acronyms and Abbreviations.................................................................................................v List of Tables..........................................................................................................................vi Introduction: South Africa in an “Age of .................................................................Hope?” 1 The Argument of this Thesis..............................................................................................3 Theoretical Framework......................................................................................................6 Methodology.....................................................................................................................12 Lay out of this Thesis....................................................................................................... 17 Chapter One: The Pull Factor: the Neoliberal Restructuring of Agriculture.....................22 “We Prefer to be Called Investors”................................................................................ 22 Restructuring in Historical Perspective..........................................................................27 Zimbabwean Farm Workers in the Far North............................................................... 44 Chapter Two: The Push Factor: The Zimbabwean Crisis................................................... 55 Prologue to Crisis.............................................................................................................60 The Zimbabwean Crisis Crystallizes..............................................................................69 Postscript: Diverse Motivations...................................................................................... 79 Chapter Three: Localized Hegemony on Two Commercial................................... Farms 82 A Tale of Two Farms.......................................................................................................88 Maswiri Boerdery: “The Only Legal Thing Here is the Oranges on the Trees!” 91 Alicedale: The Winning Recipe?.................................................................................. 108 Conclusion......................................................................................................................116 Conclusion: An Age of Desperation.................................................................................. 119 Bibliography........................................................................................................................132 iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Acronyms and Abbreviations ANC African National Congress COSATU Congress of South African Trade Unions DRC Democratic Republic of Congo ESAP Economic Structural Adjustment Program ESTA Extension of Security of Tenure Act FAWU Food and Agricultural Workers Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GEAR Growth, Employment and Redistribution GMB Grain Marketing Board IOM International Organization of Migration IMF International Monetary Fund LPM Landless Peoples Movement MDC Movement