Mentally Tough Teams in Professional Rugby Union: Important Factors, Processes and Mechanisms By Mr Stephen McIvor Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Professional Doctorate in Elite Performance Awarded by the University of Central Lancashire School of Sport and Well Being March 2018 STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made. Published peer-reviewed papers and presentations have been acknowledged and due reference made. I can confirm that I have been the primary author for the following papers and presentations that contribute to this thesis. STUDENT DECLARATION I declare that while registered as a candidate for the research degree, I have not been a registered candidate or enrolled student for another award of the University or other academic or professional institution. I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other submission for an academic award and is solely my own work. Signature of Candidate: ABSTRACT The aim of this research is to further enhance our understanding of the construct mental toughness in professional rugby union teams. While mental toughness is synonymous with sporting success, considerable ambiguity exists concerning what it actually is, how it is developed and, most pertinently in the demanding environment of professional rugby, how it can be elicited on a game-to-game basis. To achieve these aims, an initial semi-structured interview-based study with nine elite players and three elite coaches explored their understanding of mental toughness. The results highlight that mental toughness involves player-specific processes and coaching processes along with an emphasis upon group processes. Building on these results, a second interview-based study was conducted with five super-elite coaches. The results from this cohort reaffirm the importance of group identity in consistently eliciting mental toughness. The results highlight the integral role that the coach plays in challenging group standards and in fostering togetherness and respect. Moreover, the results identify processes that coaches may utilise in developing, integrating and harnessing mentally tough leaders, the alignment of formal leaders and, crucially, how coaches communicate mentally tough messages to their players via the media. In conclusion, in order to elicit mental toughness in rugby union the coach needs to manage the multiple messages within the team environment that enhances group identity and the motivation to act mentally tough. In this regard, in order to elicit mental toughness in a rugby team on a consistent basis, it is essential that the coach is aware of, and manages, individual processes, coaching processes and, most importantly, the wider environment and social milieu. This requires coaches to create an aligned leadership and to manage the multiple messages that players receive, including those from the media, in order to create a mentally tough mindset. Key words: mental toughness, coach leadership, environment, social milieu TABLE OF CONTENTS List of tables 1 Acknowledgements 2 List of abbreviations 3 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 4 1.1 Overview 4 1.2 My personal context 6 1.3 Pragmatic research philosophy 9 1.4 Objectives and structure of the thesis 11 CHAPTER 2 MENTAL TOUGHNESS: A SYNOPSIS OF THE LITERATURE AND SETTING A DIRECTION FOR PROFESSIONAL RUGBY UNION 13 2.1 Research to date 13 2.1.1 MT in individuals 14 2.1.1.1 MT as a personality trait 14 2.1.1.2 MT as a psychological skill-set 17 2.1.1.3 MT as a target for development 20 2.1.2 MT performances: other factors 23 2.1.2.1 MT as a product of coaching and operational processes 23 2.1.2.2 MT as a product of the environment 29 2.2 What is needed for professional rugby union: questions from an applied and research perspective 33 CHAPTER 3 MENTALLY TOUGH PERFORMANCE FACTORS IN SENIOR PROFESSIONAL RUGBY 40 3.1 Introduction 40 3.2 Methodology 42 3.2.1 Design and methods 42 3.2.2 Participants 43 3.2.3 Procedure 44 3.2.4 Data analysis 45 3.2.5 Addressing trustworthiness 46 3.3 Results 47 3.3.1 Player-specific processes 48 3.3.2 Coaching and team processes 53 3.3.3 Group identity and influence 58 3.4 Discussion 65 3.4.1 Consistencies with previous research 66 3.4.2 Notable emphases and additions to previous research 68 3.4.3 Strengths and limitations 72 3.5 So what do we know and what do we need to know? 73 CHAPTER 4 GENERATING A MENTALLY TOUGH ENVIRONMENT IN SENIOR PROFESSIONAL RUGBY: THE ROLE OF THE COACH 75 4.1 Introduction 75 4.2 Methodology 77 4.2.1 Design and method 77 4.2.2 Participants 78 4.2.3 Procedure 79 4.2.4 Data analysis 80 4.2.5 Addressing trustworthiness 80 4.3 Results 82 4.3.1 Challenging group standards 82 4.3.2 Fostering togetherness and respect 84 4.3.3 Developing and harnessing mentally tough leaders 85 4.3.4 Alignment of formal leaders 90 4.3.5 Sending messages via the media 93 4.4 Discussion 95 4.4.1 Comparisons and contrasts with previous literature 95 4.5 So what do we know and what do we need to know? 100 CHAPTER 5 ONE TOOL FROM THE BOX: EXTERNAL MANIPULATION OF AND THROUGH THE MEDIA 102 5.1 What makes the media so powerful/impactful 102 5.2 The case study scenario: the prelude 104 5.3 Stuart Lancaster: a tale of two cities 106 5.3.1 Salvation arrives 106 5.3.2 You ARE the One: SL appointed on a permanent basis 111 5.3.3 June 2012 to August 2015: building the regime but facing challenges 120 5.3.4 WC 2015: the wheels come off the chariot 122 5.3.5 In memoriam 127 5.4 Eddie Jones: enter the dragon 129 5.4.1 All change: the first month 129 5.4.2 Additional messaging through staff appointments 131 5.4.3 Embedding the new regime 132 5.4.4 Wider communications 135 5.4.5 The story so far 136 5.5 The chronology of ‘success’ and ‘failure’ in the media game 139 5.6 Lessons learned 141 CHAPTER 6 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER: A SITUATED MODEL OF COACH PRACTICE IN GENERATING A MT ENVIRONMENT 149 6.1 Review of findings 149 6.1.1 The role of managing individuals’ MT 150 6.1.2 The role of coaching and operational processes 152 6.1.3 The role of group identity and influence 153 6.2 Integrating relevant theory and research constructs 156 6.2.1 Self-determination theory 157 6.2.2 Social identity theory 160 6.2.3 Elite team leadership/culture change theory 163 6.3 A behavioural model of generating MT 168 6.3.1 The biopsychosocial nature of MT development 168 6.3.2 The need for coherent leadership (sending messages/covering intentions) 169 6.3.3 The need for coherent support teams (SMMs and message sending) 173 6.3.4 The need for ‘arse covering’ and creating time 176 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION 177 7.1 General discussion 177 7.2 Recommendations for future study 182 7.3 Summary of practical implications 184 APPENDICES Appendix A: Participant Information Sheet: Coach 186 Appendix B: Participant Information Sheet: Player 189 Appendix C: Informed Consent Form 192 Appendix D: Interview Guide: Study 1 195 Appendix E: Interview Guide: Study 2 200 REFERENCES 208 LIST OF TABLES 3.1 Emergent higher-order themes and sub-themes from the data 42 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, and most importantly, I want to thank Andrew Cruickshank for his indomitable and positive spirit, his relentless patience and his kindness throughout this exercise in building mental toughness! I would also like to thank Aine MacNamara for her initial contribution and support during the PG Cert and PG Dip stages of the D.Prof. Finally in regard to my support at UCLan, I want to thank Professor Dave Collins. From our initial meeting right up to the end, I have learned an immense amount, not only about sport and psychology but also so much of the inbetween. I want to thank the incredible cohort of players and coaches who gave so generously of their time from across the World. Their passion and knowledge for the game of rugby, along with their knowledge, awareness and assiduous attention to detail helped make this what it is. There have been many friends who have shown kindness to me, inspired me, kept me strong and kept me going: Dingle, John, Cristina, Paullie, Shay, Neasa, Lisa and Karen, among many others. I want to thank them all for their kindness, generosity and friendship. Last, I want to thank my Mom and Dad, one of the strongest teams I know. They are my constant and the definition of unconditional love. Thank you Mom and Dad from the bottom of my heart for keeping me balanced and moving forward even when I wavered. 2 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS CA Cultural architects DP Deliberate practice EI Emotional intelligence IM Impression management MT Mental toughness PST Psychological skills training SBA Strengths-based approach SDT Self-determination theory SIT Social identity theory SI-T Stress inoculation-training WC World Cup 3 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Overview The World Cup (WC) is the flagship of rugby. In 1987, it had a worldwide viewership of 230 million and attendance of 600,000.