Use and Adaptation of Written Language to the Conditions of Computer-Mediated Communication Ylva Hård af Segerstad Department of Linguistics University of Gothenburg, Sweden 2002 Use and Adaptation of Written Language to the Conditions of Computer-Mediated Communication Ylva Hård af Segerstad Doctoral Dissertation Publicly defended in Stora Hörsalen, Humanisten, University of Gothenburg, on December 21, 2002, at 10.00, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Linguistics Göteborg University, Sweden 2002 This volume is a revised version of the dissertation. ISBN 91-973895-3-6 Use and Adaptation of Written Language to the Conditions of Computer-Mediated Communication Abstract The purpose of the present study is to investigate how written language is used and adapted to suit the conditions of four modes of computer-mediated communication (CMC). Texts from email, web chat, instant messaging and mobile text messaging (SMS) have been analyzed. The general human ability to adapt is deemed to underlie linguistic adaptation. A linguistic adaptivity theory is proposed here. It is proposed that three interdependent variables influence language use: synchronicity, means of expression and situation. Two modes of CMC are synchronous (web chat and instant messaging), and two are asynchronous (email and SMS). These are all tertiary means of expression, written and transmitted by electronic means. Production and perception conditions, such as text input technique, limited message size, as well as situational parameters such as relationship between communicators, goal of interaction are found to influence message composition. The dissertation challenges popular assumptions that language is deteriorating because of increased use in CMC. It is argued that language use in different modes of CMC are variants, or repertoires, like any other variants. Contrary to popular assumptions, results show that language use is adapted creatively and is well suited the particular modes of CMC. A number of linguistic features are shown to be characteristic of the modes of CMC investigated in the present study. Strategies such as syntactical and lexical reductions are employed to reduce time, effort and space. These techniques often appear to serve multifunctional purposes, by expressing interpersonal intimacy by the choice of words and phrases, while reducing keystrokes. This clearly indicates linguistic awareness. Texts in email, web chat, instant messaging and SMS are found to contain unconventional and not yet established abbreviations based on Swedish as well as words from other languages, unconventional or spoken-like spelling, unconventional use of punctuation and use of non-alphabetical graphical means (emoticons, asterisks). Thus, written language is found to have been developed and enhanced to suit the conditions of computer-mediated communication. KEY WORDS: computer-mediated communication; human adaptability; email, web chat; instant messaging; SMS. The thesis is written in English. TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents PART I ........................................................................................................................ 1 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 1 1.2 PURPOSE OF THE DISSERTATION .............................................................................. 5 1.2.1 Hypotheses ........................................................................................................ 6 1.3 OUTLINE OF DISSERTATION ...................................................................................... 7 1.4 A NOTE ON THE COMPOSITION OF THIS DISSERTATION .................................... 8 2 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................ 10 2.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 10 2.2 HUMAN COMMUNICATION ....................................................................................... 11 2.2.1 Multilevel organization of communicative interaction ............................. 13 2.2.2 Communication as rational and cooperative action and interaction ...... 15 2.2.3 Communication and Social/Situational Variables ..................................... 16 2.2.4 Participants, Situation and Context ............................................................. 18 2.2.5 Registers, Genres, Activities ......................................................................... 19 2.2.6 Communication management ....................................................................... 22 2.2.7 Establishing shared information .................................................................. 26 2.2.8 Constraints on Grounding, or Sharing Information ................................. 28 2.2.9 Frequency effects and the principle of least effort .................................... 31 2.3 VARIABLES CONDITIONING HUMAN COMMUNICATION .................................... 32 2.4 SPOKEN AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ........................................................... 36 2.4.1 Speech and writing: manifestations of the same system? ......................... 36 2.4.2 Speech and writing, spoken and written language ..................................... 39 2.4.3 Variables Conditioning Speech and Writing .............................................. 40 2.4.4 Are differences between speech and writing due to means of expression, or genre? ........................................................................................................................... 46 2.5 COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION ........................................................... 50 2.5.1 Does CMC have a negative influence on language? ................................. 51 2.5.2 A third medium? ............................................................................................. 53 2.5.3 Modes of text-based CMC ............................................................................ 55 2.5.4 Variables conditioning CMC ........................................................................ 57 2.5.5 Properties of the modes of CMC investigated in the present study ....... 63 2.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 76 3 MATERIAL & METHODS .......................................................................... 78 3.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 78 3.2 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF COLLECTING AND HANDLING DATA ............ 79 3.3 GENERAL METHOD OF ANALYSIS .......................................................................... 81 i TABLE OF CONTENTS 3.4 A NOTE ON SELECTION OF MATERIAL ................................................................... 82 3.5 REPRESENTATIVITY OF THE DATA .......................................................................... 83 3.6 METHODS AND MATERIAL IN FOUR MODES OF CMC ........................................ 84 3.6.1 Analyses of Language Use in Email ............................................................ 84 3.6.2 Analyses of Language Use in Web Chat ..................................................... 86 3.6.3 Analyses of Language Use in Instant Messaging ....................................... 89 3.6.4 Analyses of Language Use in SMS ............................................................... 92 3.7 OVERVIEW OF DATA FROM FOUR MODES OF CMC ........................................... 94 3.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY .................................................................................................. 94 PART II .................................................................................................................... 95 4 ELECTRONIC LETTERS TO UNKNOWN AUTHORITIES ............... 96 4.1 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 96 4.1.1 Aim of the present study ............................................................................... 98 4.2 PREVIOUS STUDIES OF EMAIL ................................................................................. 99 4.2.1 Analysis of messages in an electronic Swedish conference system ........ 99 4.2.2 Analysis of messages in electronic mailing lists ......................................... 99 4.2.3 Analysis of private email .............................................................................. 101 4.2.4 Closure on actions ........................................................................................ 102 4.3 THE PRESENT STUDY: ELECTRONIC LETTERS TO UNKNOWN AUTHORITIES 102 4.3.1 The Swedish business letter template and norms for informal letters . 104 4.4 MATERIAL AND METHOD ...................................................................................... 104 4.4.1 Material ........................................................................................................... 104 4.4.2 Method ........................................................................................................... 107 4.5 RESULTS .................................................................................................................... 107 4.5.1 Overview of the corpora ............................................................................