Evolutions-prelims10.qxd 2005/09/28 12:11 PM Page i Evolutions & Revolutions A Contemporary History of Militaries in Southern Africa EDITED BY MARTIN RUPIYA Funded by the Government of the United Kingdom, Department for International Development (DFID) Evolutions-prelims10.qxd 2005/09/28 12:11 PM Page ii www.issafrica.org © 2005, Institute for Security Studies All rights reserved Copyright in the volume as a whole is vested in the Institute for Security Studies, and no part may be reproduced in whole or part without the express permission, in writing, of both the authors and the publishers. The opinions expressed in this book do not necessarily reflect those of the Institute, its Trustees, members of the Council, or donors. Authors contribute to ISS publications in their personal capacity. ISBN: 1-919913-82-3 First published by the Institute for Security Studies P O Box 1787, Brooklyn Square 0075 Pretoria, South Africa Cover design: Prepress (012) 346 2168 Editing, layout and production: Tyrus Text and Design 082 416 2918 Rapid Repro (011) 880 1688 Lesedi Litho Printers (012) 321 9375 Evolutions-prelims10.qxd 2005/09/28 12:11 PM Page iii Acknowledgements The research and publication of Evolutions & Revolutions: A Contemporary History of Militaries in Southern Africa, facilitated by the Defence Sector Programme (DSP) of the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), is a result of the kind co-operation of individuals and institutions who subscribe to the noble concept of empirically documenting the response to security threats by 13 newly independent countries in the post-colonial era. This group of countries, constituting Southern Africa, has emerged from one of the most conflict-ridden experiences on the African continent, spanning the period from the 1960s to the 1990s. The response of each country once it attained political independence has been the unknown piece on the mosaic, whose significance can only be fully appreciated when placed side-by-side with similar events in neighbouring states. The different contributions by African practitioners experienced in the military profession are important for posterity, as is their contribution to providing clarity on a hitherto unexplored dimension of nation building. We therefore thank both the individuals and institutions concerned. Particular gratitude is extended to all the researchers/authors who gave of their precious time and overcame a natural sense of self- censorship in order to engage in the research over the past two years. Special mention and thanks also go to the contributions made by DSP intern Odilile Lindiwe Onu, who patiently put together the comprehensive bibliography and index for the book, as well as to our external editor, Tracy Seider, who diligently and professionally restructured many of our thought into readable format. Importantly, we thank the Government of the United Kingdom, Department for International Development (DFID) for their financial assistance which made the realisation of this publication possible. The contributions made by the various authors, however, in no way represent the views of the DFID or for that matter, the ISS. iii Evolutions-prelims10.qxd 2005/09/28 12:11 PM Page iv Evolutions-prelims10.qxd 2005/09/28 12:11 PM Page v About the authors João Paulo Borges Coelho is a senior lecturer and researcher of Mozamiban Contemporary History in the Department of History, Faculty of Arts, Eduardo Mondlane University (UEM), Maputo. He is also an associate researcher at the African Studies Centre/UEM and an invited lecturer for the African History masters course at the Faculty of Arts, Lisbon University. Coelho is currently also director of the Southern African Defence and Security Management Network in Mozambique. He has published numerous articles on socio-political issues regarding the colonial and contemporary history of Mozambique, including, Estado, Comunidades e Calamidades Naturais no Moçambique Rural, in Boaventura de Sousa Santos (org.): Semear outras soluções: os caminhos da biodiversidade e dos conhecimentos rivais, Afrontamento, Porto 2004; and Da Violência Colonial Ordenada à Ordem Pós-Colonial Violenta: Sobre um Legado das Guerras Coloniais nas Ex-Colónias Portuguesas in Lusotopie: Violences et Controle de la Violence au Bresil, en Afrique et a Goa, Karthala, Paris, 2003. Knox Chitiyo is currently working on a PhD focusing on the military developments in Zimbabwe, while based in London, UK. He was co- founder and director of the Foundation for Southern African and Diaspora Research—a project that seeks to research security, history and the developments that affect Southern Africans in general. Chitiyo was a lecturer in War and Strategic Studies in the History Department at the University of Zimbabwe from 1994-2002, and was deputy director of the Centre for Defence Studies at the same university from 1998-2002. Gwinyayi Albert Dzinesa is a doctoral candidate in the International Relations Department at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. His thesis topic is Disarmament, Demobilization, Reintegration, Repatriation and Resettlement in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa. Dzinesa previously worked as a research intern on the NISAT Project, International Peace Research Institute, Oslo. Prior to this he was the research and publications officer at the Centre for Defence Studies, as well as a graduate teaching assistant in war studies at the University of Zimbabwe’s History Department. v Evolutions-prelims10.qxd 2005/09/28 12:11 PM Page vi vi Evolutions & Revolutions Dr Jacques Ebenga is a retired colonel of the former Zairian Armed Forces. He is a medical doctor, trained in France where he practiced briefly before returning to then Zaire. Dr Ebenga played a critical role in the ceasefire and process that established the 1 + 4 presidential transitional government in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), during which he was an advisor to the Inter-Congolese Dialogue factions. He also worked briefly with the United Nations Development Programme office in Kinshasa as the Security and Integration Policy advisor. Now operating independently as director of the NGO, Labor Optimus, Dr Ebenga has become one of the important players in the process leading to the scheduled elections in the DRC. Lt Gen Louis Matshwenyego Fisher is the commander of the Botswana Defence Force (BDF). He holds two MA degrees in Public Administration and Business Administration. Lt Gen Fisher is a graduate of the United States Command and General Staff College (USCGSC) as well as the US Army War College (USAWC), and in August 1998 he was inducted into both the International Fellows Hall of Fame (USAWC) and the International Officer Hall of Fame (USCGSC) in United States. Lt Gen Fisher has held several appointments in the BDF including Force Adjutant, Chief of Military Intelligence, Brigade Commander and Deputy Commander/Chief of Staff. His military decorations include French Legion Honour, Duty Code Order and Distinguished Service Medal. Lt Gen Fisher, in conjunction with Dr Naision Ngoma, have recently written an ISS Occasional Paper (No 114) entitled The SADC Organ: Challenges in the new millennium. Ana Leão is a senior researcher in the Southern African Human Security Programme at the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), and currently undertakes research in Mozambique, Angola and the DRC, focusing on small arms and light weapons for the Arms Management Programme. Leão’s academic focus is on Social Anthropology and its relationship with the various communities on the African continent, while her thematic research focus is on the social reintegration of former child soldiers. She has published on arms management issues, such as Weapons in Mozambique: Reducing availability and demand, ISS Monograph 94, January 2004. Maj Gen (Rtd) Len le Roux is currently head of the Defence Sector Programme at the ISS. He served in the South African Department of Evolutions-prelims10.qxd 2005/09/28 12:11 PM Page vii About the authors vii Defence (DoD) from 1964-2000. During the period 1995-2000 Le Roux was involved in the development of the South African White Paper on Defence, the Defence Review and the DoD Transformation Project. After leaving the DoD in 2000, Maj Gen Le Roux remained active in the security debate in Africa through support to the programmes of various NGOs and universities. Le Roux specialises in the fields of defence transformation and civil-military relations and has written chapters for numerous books, including, The South African National Defence Force and its involvement in the Defence Review process, in Ourselves to Know: Civil-Military Relations and Defence Transformation in Southern Africa, ISS, Pretoria, 2003; and a chapter on budgeting for the military in South Africa in the SIPRI book, Budgeting for the military sector in Africa: The processes and mechanisms of control (forthcoming). Prof. Nestor Nokter Luanda is an associate professor of History in the Department of History at the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and holds a PhD from Cambridge, UK. He has researched and published widely on the military history of Tanzania and was the volume editor of the seminal study Tanganyika Rifles Mutiny: January 1964 published in 1993. Prof. Luanda has also published on a number of related topics, including contemporary historical processes in Tanzania and the military in Africa and liberation movements. Lt Gen Hanania (Rtd) B.M. Lungu was brigadier and commander of the Zambia Air Force from 1980-1990. He was also a United National Independence Party Central Committee member and was appointed Minister of Defence and as Zambia’s Ambassador and Permanent Representative to the United Nations in New York before retirement. Brig Gen Paulino Macaringue has an MA in Security and Defence Analysis, as well as an MA in Military Sciences and a licentiatura degree in History. Brig Gen Macaringue has accomplished duties as company, battalion and brigade commander in the Mozambique Armed Forces and was training director at Defence Headquarters. During the General Peace Agreement implementation Brig Gen Macaringue was part of the Joint Commission for the establishment of the Mozambican Defence Forces.