Whither State, Private or Public Service Broadcasting? An Analysis of the Construction of News on ZBC TV during the 2002 Presidential Election Campaign in Zimbabwe A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for a Master of Arts Degree in Journalism and Media Studies (ad elllldem gradllm) RHODES UNIVERSITY BY Tula Dlamini March 2003 SUPERVISOR: PROF. GUY BERGER Pencil, ink marks and highlighting ruin books for other- readers. TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE Table of Contents .. .. 11 Dedication ... vi Acknowledgements .......... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. ...... .. .. ..vii List of Figures. .. x List of Appendices ......... ..... .. .. ...... .. ....... .. .. .... Xl Abbreviations ..... ............. ... ... ... ............ " " ...... ... ... , .... Xll Abstract ..... ................... .......... ..... ............. .. .. ......... ...xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1. O. Introduction . .................................. .............. ... .... .... 1 1. 1. General Background .............. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. ...1 1. 2. Objectives of Study ..... 2 1. 2. 2. Specific Objectives .... 2 1. 2. 3. General Objectives .. .. ...... 3 1. 3. Research Assumptions .... .. .... 3 1. 4. Why Television? .............. ... ... .. .. ..4 1. 5. Backgro1lnd Studies ................... ...... .. .. 5 1. 6. Significance oflhe Study ........... .. .. .... 7 1. 7. Metllods of Study ...................... .. .. ................ 8 1. 8. Conclusion ................ .. .......... ... .. .9 1. 9. Thesis Outline .......... ................................ .......... .. .. ... 10 CHAPTER TWO: THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2. O. Introduction .... .. ............ 12 2. 1. Media and Democracy .... ...12 2.2. Consumerism, Citizenship and Political Control ..... .. ... 13 2. 3. The Public Sphere .............. .. ...14 2. 3. 1. Public Service Broadcasting and the Public Sphere. ..16 2. 3. 2. Public Service Broadcasting, the Public Sphere and Gender .................. 16 2.4. Normative Roles of Public Service Television ........ ..... .. .... .. ... .. ....... 17 2.4. 1. Agency of Representation ...... .. ... 17 2. 4. 1.2. Distributing Access on Public Television .. .. ... 17 2. 4. 2. Agency oflnformation and Debate ............ .. .18 11 2.4.3. The Informed Citizen .......................... .. .•.. ..... ... ... ... ... .•.. .. .. ..... ... 19 2.5. Definition of Public Service Broadcasting ........ .. ............................ .......... 20 2. 6. Public Service Broadcasting Funding ....................................................... 21 2. 6. I. License Fees ..................................................................... ........... 21 2. 6. 2. Government Grants .............. ........................................ .. ........... 21 2. 6. 3. Advertising and Sponsorship .. ............. ........................................ .. 22 2. 6. 4. Sale of Programmes .... ...... ..22 2. 7. Control Structure ....................... .. ... 23 2.7. I. Editorial Independence ......... .. .... 23 2.7.2. Different Roles in the Newsroom .................. .. ........ .... 24 2.7.3. Guidelines on Election Reporting. .. .... 25 2.7.3. I. Separating Fact from Opinion... ........ ..... .............. .. ..... 25 2.7.3.2. News Reports and Impartiality ................... ..................................... 25 2.7.3.3. News Reports and Representativeness .......... ...................................... 26 2.8. News Production Theory .................................................................... 27 2.9. Conclusion ............... ..................... ................................ .................28 CHAPTER THREE: MEDIA AND POLITICS IN ZIMBABWE 3. O. Introduction ............ .. .. ... 30 3. I. Political Situalion in Zimbabwe ... ........................... ....... .. ..................... 30 3. I. I. Independence ................ .... ...... .......... .. ............................ ........ 30 3.2. Party Politics in Zimbabwe ........ .... ......... .. .. ................................. .31 3. 2. I. The One-Party State ........................... .. .. .. ..................... ....... .. .31 3. 2. 2. Multi-Pal1Y Politics in Zimbabwe ....... ...... ..... 32 3.3. Political and Economic Situation and the 2002 Presidential Election ................ 33 3. 4. The Press ...................................................................................... 34 3.4.2. Political Significance of the Press forthe Zimbabwe Public Sphere ............... 36 3.5. The Land Issue .......................................... ..................................... 37 3.5. I. The Land Issue on ZBC TV Newscasts .......... ... ... .......... ..................... 38 3. 6. Broadcasting in Zimbabwe ................................................................ 39 3.6. I. Zimbabwe - A New Era of Broadcasting ............................................ 42 3.7. Legal Developments ............................................ ....... ...... .. .......... 44 3.8. The '10 Golden Rules'.. .. .......... ....... ....... .. .................. .. ... .48 3.9. CUll'ent ZBC Control Structure..... ..... ......... .... ...... ....... .... ..50 3.9. O. Conclusion ....................................... .. .... 51 III CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES 4. O. Introduction................... ....... ... ................ .............................. 52 4. I. Methodology................. ....... .. ........................................ .. .... 52 4.2. SamplingRationale............................ .............................. ... 53 4.3. Content Analysis ofZBC Television News..................... ... ............54 4.4. What is Content Analysis? ................................ .. ................. .. .. ......... 56 4. 4. I. Justifying Content Analys is .............. .................. .. ............. .... .......... 57 4.5. Quantitative Content Analysis ofZBC TV Main News Bulletin ....................... 57 4.5. I. Specific Categories for Analysis - ZBC TV News Reports ........................ ' ... 58 4.6. Qualitative Analysis ........................................................................ 60 4. 6. I. Qualitative Textual Analysis ...... ... ........... 61 4.6. 2. Interviews .......................................... ................................ ......... 61 4. 6.3. List ofinterviews ......................... ... .... " ................... .. ................. 62 4. 7. Supplementary Information .......... ... ...... .... ........ ........ ....... ... ... .. .......... 63 4.8. Limitations of Study ...................... .................. ... ............... ................. 63 4.9. Conclusion ....................................... ......................... .................. .... 64 CHAPTER FIVE: ANALYSIS 5. O. Introduction ......................... ................................. ... .......... 65 5. I. Findings .... ......................... ............. .......................... ........ 65 5. I. I. Content Analysis of the Main News .. ............ ..65 5.2. Frequency of Actors in Coverage - Social and Political Constituencies ............... 66 5. 3. Time Allocated to Actors in Coverage... ............................ ........... 67 5.4. Gender Distribution. ......................•............... .. .............. 68 5.5. Story Type. ...... ......... ... ...... .. ... .. ........ ... .... ...... .... .......... ... 69 5. 5. I. Story Type - Sub·category ...... ....... 70 5.5. I. I. Elections ........................................... ........... ... ... ... .............. .... 70 5.6. Dateline .... ................................................ ....... ........ .. ................. 70 5.7. Summary of the Qualitative Content Analysis Findings ............................... 71 5.8. Qualitative Textual Analysis ofZBC TV News Bulletins ................... ......... 72 5. 8. I. Gender ...................... ............ ........................................... 74 5.8. 2. News Dateline......... ... ........... .... ... .. .......... 76 5.8. 3. Story Types... ....... ............ ... .................... ... .. ... ..... .... 77 5.9. Conclusion ................ .. ...... .................. ....... ............ ...................... 80 IV CHAPTER SIX: INTERVIEWS, INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION 6. O. Introduction ................................................. ......... ....... ........... ..... 82 6. l. Making News ............... ................ ................. .... ....... 82 6.2. Interview Questions and Data Obtained ......................................... .......... 83 6. 3. Inside the Newsroom ............................... .................................... ...... 84 6.3. l. Political Interference ......................................... ...... ........................ 84 6. 3.2. Choice of Sources ................ ..... ... .............. .. ........ ....... .................. 86 6.3.3. Resource Constraints ..................... ................................................. 87 6.3.4. News Values and Guidelines ......................................................... .... 88 6.4. Conclusion ........................................• .. .............•............ ... .............. 89 CHAPTER SEVEN: RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 7. O. Introduction ..................................... ..... ................................. ....... 91 7. l. Theory and Further Research. ................ ... ... .. ...... .. ..... ......... .............. 9] 7.2. Broadcast Landscape Issues ..............................................................