ASPEN CASEBOOK SERIES INFORMATION PRIVACY LAW Sixth Edition Daniel J. Solove John Marshall Harlan Research Professor of Law George Washington University Law School Paul M. Schwartz Jefferson E. Peyser Professor of Law U.C. Berkeley School of Law Faculty Director, Berkeley Center for Law & Technology Copyright © 2018 CCH Incorporated. All Rights Reserved. Published by Wolters Kluwer in New York. Wolters Kluwer Legal & Regulatory U.S. serves customers worldwide with CCH, Aspen Publishers, and Kluwer Law International products. (www.WKLegaledu.com) No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or utilized by any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publisher. For information about permissions or to request permissions online, visit us at www.WKLegaledu.com, or a written request may be faxed to our permissions department at 212-771-0803. To contact Customer Service, e-mail [email protected], call 1-800-234-1660, fax 1-800-901-9075, or mail correspondence to: Wolters Kluwer Attn: Order Department PO Box 990 Frederick, MD 21705 Printed in the United States of America. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 ISBN 978-1-4548-9275-5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Solove, Daniel J., 1972- author. | Schwartz, Paul M., 1959- author. Title: Information privacy law / Daniel J. Solove, John Marshall Harlan Research Professor of Law, George Washington University Law School; Paul M. Schwartz, Jefferson E. Peyser Professor of Law, U.C. Berkeley School of Law, Faculty Director, Berkeley Center for Law & Technology. Description: Sixth edition. | New York : Wolters Kluwer Law & Business, [2018] | Series: Aspen casebook series | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2017045456 | ISBN 9781454892755 Subjects: LCSH: Privacy, Right of--United States. | Data protection--Law and legislation--United States. | Confidential communications--United States. | Personality (Law)--United States. | LCGFT: Casebooks. Classification: LCC KF1262 .S66 2018 | DDC 342.7308/58--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017045456 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS Contents xi Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxix 1 INTRODUCTION 1 A. Information Privacy, Technology, and the Law 1 B. Information Privacy Law: Origins and Types 10 2 PERSPECTIVES ON PRIVACY 41 A. The Philosophical Discourse about Privacy 41 B. The Definition and the Value of Privacy 43 C. Critics of Privacy 63 D. The Feminist Perspective on Privacy 70 3 PRIVACY AND THE MEDIA 79 A. Information Gathering 81 B. Disclosure of Truthful Information 106 C. Dissemination of False Information 174 D. Appropriation of Name or Likeness 211 E. Privacy Protections for Anonymity and Receipt of Ideas 233 4 PRIVACY AND LAW ENFORCEMENT 253 A. The Fourth Amendment and Emerging Technology 256 B. Information Gathering About First Amendment Activities 331 C. Federal Electronic Surveillance Law 344 D. Digital Searches and Seizures 359 5 NATIONAL SECURITY AND FOREIGN INTELLIGENCE 407 A. The Intelligence Community 408 B. The Fourth Amendment Framework 409 C. Foreign Intelligence Gathering 417 D. NSA Surveillance 444 ix x SUMMARY OF CONTENTS 6 HEALTH PRIVACY 475 A. Confidentiality of Medical Information 477 B. Constitutional Protection of Medical Information 542 C. Genetic Information 582 7 GOVERNMENT RECORDS 603 A. Public Access to Government Records 604 B. Government Records and Use of Personal Data 663 C. Identification Records and Requirements 720 8 FINANCIAL DATA 737 A. The Fair Credit Reporting Act 737 B. The Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act 773 C. Federal and State Financial Privacy Laws 776 9 CONSUMER DATA 785 A. The U.S. System of Consumer Data Privacy Regulation 786 B. Tort Law 820 C. Contract Law 829 D. Property Law 842 E. FTC Section 5 Enforcement 845 F. Statutory Regulation 876 G. First Amendment Limitations on Privacy Regulation 918 10 DATA SECURITY 945 A. Introduction 945 B. Data Security Breach Notification Statutes 947 C. Civil Liability and Standing 952 D. FTC Regulation 975 11 EDUCATION PRIVACY 991 A. School Searches and Surveillance 991 B. Drug Testing 997 C. School Records 1007 12 EMPLOYMENT PRIVACY 1017 A. Workplace Searches 1020 B. Workplace Surveillance 1028 C. Workplace Drug Testing 1031 D. The Issue of Consent 1042 E. Testing, Questionnaires, and Polygraphs 1049 F. Telephone Monitoring 1062 G. Computer Monitoring and Searches 1069 SUMMARY OF CONTENTS xi 13 INTERNATIONAL PRIVACY LAW 1093 A. The OECD Privacy Guidelines 1096 B. Privacy Protection in Europe 1100 C. International Transfers of Data 1173 D. The APEC Privacy Framework 1203 E. Privacy Protection in North America 1205 F. Privacy Protection in South America 1208 G. Privacy Protection in Africa and the Middle East 1209 H. Privacy Protection in Asia-Pacific 1210 Index 1215 CONTENTS Preface xxvii Acknowledgments xxix 1 INTRODUCTION 1 A. INFORMATION PRIVACY, TECHNOLOGY, AND THE LAW 1 ● Sidis v. F-R Publishing Corp. 3 B. INFORMATION PRIVACY LAW: ORIGINS AND TYPES 10 1. Common Law 10 (a) The Warren and Brandeis Article 10 ● Samuel D. Warren and Louis D. Brandeis, The Right to Privacy 13 (b) The Recognition of Warren and Brandeis’s Privacy Torts 25 ● William Prosser, Privacy 27 ● Lake v. Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. 29 (c) Privacy Protection in Tort Law 32 (d) Privacy Protection in Evidence Law 33 (e) Privacy Protection via Property Rights 33 (f) Privacy Protection in Contract Law 33 (g) Privacy Protection in Criminal Law 34 2. Constitutional Law 34 3. Statutory Law 36 4. International Law 39 2 PERSPECTIVES ON PRIVACY 41 A. THE PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSE ABOUT PRIVACY 41 1. The Concept of Privacy and the Right to Privacy 41 2. The Public and Private Spheres 42 xiii xiv CONTENTS B. THE DEFINITION AND THE VALUE OF PRIVACY 43 ● Alan Westin, Privacy and Freedom 44 ● Julie E. Cohen, Examined Lives: Informational Privacy and the Subject as Object 49 ● Daniel J. Solove, Conceptualizing Privacy 52 ● Anita L. Allen, Coercing Privacy 55 ● Paul M. Schwartz, Privacy and Democracy in Cyberspace 58 ● Spiros Simitis, Reviewing Privacy in an Information Society 60 C. CRITICS OF PRIVACY 63 ● Richard A. Posner, The Right of Privacy 63 ● Fred H. Cate, Principles of Internet Privacy 67 D. THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ON PRIVACY 70 ● State v. Rhodes 70 ● Reva B. Siegel, “The Rule of Love”: Wife Beating as Prerogative and Privacy 72 ● Catharine A. MacKinnon, Toward a Feminist Theory of the State 75 ● Anita L. Allen, Uneasy Access: Privacy for Women in a Free Society 76 3 PRIVACY AND THE MEDIA 79 A. INFORMATION GATHERING 81 1. Intrusion upon Seclusion 81 ● Restatement (Second) of Torts § 652B: Intrusion upon Seclusion 81 ● Nader v. General Motors Corp. 82 ● Dietemann v. Time, Inc. 87 ● Desnick v. American Broadcasting Co., Inc. 89 ● Shulman v. Group W Productions, Inc. 94 2. Paparazzi 98 ● Galella v. Onassis 99 ● California Anti-Paparazzi Act 100 3. Video Voyeurism 103 ● Video Voyeurism Prevention Act 104 B. DISCLOSURE OF TRUTHFUL INFORMATION 106 1. Public Disclosure of Private Facts 106 (a) Introduction 106 ● Restatement (Second) of Torts § 652D: Publicity Given to Private Life 106 (b) Private Matters 108 ● Gill v. Hearst Publishing Co. 108 ● Daily Times Democrat v. Graham 113 CONTENTS xv (c) The Newsworthiness Test 120 ● Sipple v. Chronicle Publishing Co. 120 ● Shulman v. Group W Productions, Inc. 130 ● Bonome v. Kaysen 133 2. First Amendment Limitations 140 ● Cox Broadcasting Corp. v. Cohn 142 ● The Florida Star v. B.J.F. 149 ● Bartnicki v. Vopper 164 C. DISSEMINATION OF FALSE INFORMATION 174 1. Defamation 174 (a) Introduction 174 (b) Defamation and the Internet 176 ● Zeran v. America Online, Inc. 177 (c) First Amendment Limitations 185 ● New York Times Co. v. Sullivan 185 ● Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. 189 2. False Light 196 (a) Introduction 196 ● Restatement (Second) of Torts § 652E: Publicity Placing Person in False Light 196 (b) First Amendment Limitations 198 ● Time, Inc. v. Hill 198 3. Infliction of Emotional Distress 202 ● Hustler Magazine v. Falwell 203 ● Snyder v. Phelps 205 D. APPROPRIATION OF NAME OR LIKENESS 211 1. Introduction 211 ● Restatement (Second) of Torts § 652C: Appropriation of Name or Likeness 211 2. Name or Likeness 214 ● Carson v. Here’s Johnny Portable Toilets, Inc. 214 3. For One’s Own Use or Benefit 221 ● Raymen v. United Senior Association, Inc. 221 4. Connection to Matters of Public Interest 225 ● Finger v. Omni Publications International, Ltd. 226 5. First Amendment Limitations 230 ● Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co. 230 xvi CONTENTS E. PRIVACY PROTECTIONS FOR ANONYMITY AND RECEIPT OF IDEAS 233 1. Anonymity 233 (a) Anonymous Speech 233 ● Talley v. State of California 233 ● McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission 234 ● Doe v. Cahill 239 (b) Reporter’s Privilege 245 2. Privacy of Reading and Intellectual Exploration 247 ● Stanley v. Georgia 248 4 PRIVACY AND LAW ENFORCEMENT 253 A. THE FOURTH AMENDMENT AND EMERGING TECHNOLOGY 256 1. How the Fourth Amendment Works 256 (a) Applicability: Searches and Seizures 256 (b) Reasonable Searches and Seizures 257 (c) Enforcement: The Exclusionary Rule and Civil Remedies 259 (d) Subpoenas and Court Orders 260 2. Wiretapping, Bugging, and Beyond 263 ● Olmstead v. United States 264 ● Lopez v. United States 271 ● Katz v. United States 273 ● United States v. White 280 3. The Reasonable Expectation of Privacy Test 284 (a) The Third Party Doctrine 284 ● Smith v. Maryland 284 (b) Items Abandoned or Exposed to the Public 295 ● California v. Greenwood 295 (c) Surveillance and the Use of Sense Enhancement Technologies 301 ● Florida v. Riley 302 ● Dow Chemical Co. v. United States 309 ● Kyllo v. United States 313 ● United States v. Jones 321 B. INFORMATION GATHERING ABOUT FIRST AMENDMENT ACTIVITIES 331 ● Stanford v. Texas 333 ● Gonzales v. Google 340 CONTENTS xvii C. FEDERAL ELECTRONIC SURVEILLANCE LAW 344 1. Section 605 of the Federal Communications Act 344 2.