RESTORATIVE JUSTICE UNFULFILLED: A CASE STUDY OF AFRICAN AMERICANS FROM PRINCE EDWARD COUNTY, VIRGINIA by Linda J. Mann A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Education Committee: Chair Program Director Dean, College of Education and Human Development Date: Spring semester 2015 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Restorative Justice Unfulfilled: A Case Study of African Americans from Prince Edward County, Virginia A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Linda J. Mann Masters of Education University of Vermont, 1991 Bachelors of Science University of Vermont, 1986 Director: Penelope Earley, Professor College of Education and Human Development George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license. ii DEDICATION This study is dedicated to the late Reverend L. Francis Griffin who served as the spiritual leader in Farmville during the school closures. I never had the pleasure to meet him, but his words inspired me to take this study on. So, when I lie on my bed at night and contemplate life, I tremble at the grim realities facing us. What will we tell the generations yet unborn? What can we say to poor everyday man, a victim of the system of injustice now in existence? … I, for one, will not be guilty, I must speak out against injustice, and everywhere I see it (The Richmond Afro-American, July 28 1961, para. 32). This study is also dedicated to the individuals that were interviewed in order to develop a better understanding of what it means to be a recipient of the Brown Scholarship Fund as well as the gatekeeper who welcomed me and provided support throughout the research process. This study is truly their study. Moreover, these individuals work to secure justice everyday through their actions and words and I was inspired by their stories of bravery, and perseverance. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the individuals who have inspired and guided me in both my scholarship and in my personal life. First, I would like to acknowledge our children, Greg, Tyler, Jason, Brad and Julia. Thank you for your constant support and your continued words of encouragement when I was feeling depleted. You are the most amazing, supportive children and you are my inspiration. Also, thank you to my husband who supported me in every way possible to complete this dissertation. Your sacrifices did not go unnoticed and I am forever grateful. I would like to thank my committee and in particular, Dr. Earley. Dr. Earley, I am so very grateful to you for your continued guidance and expertise. Thank you for pushing me to excel in my scholarship and for always believing in my abilities. You have been a great mentor. I am thankful to my committee for pushing me to think critically and analytically about my scholarship. Your expertise and support guided this study and I am very grateful. Also, gratitude to Dr. Pellegrino for the many projects we shared. You taught me much about research, publishing, conferences and teaching at the University level. Your faith in me meant a lot. I would like to acknowledge my Mom, who always pushed me to achieve and strive to be the best I could be in actions and words. I am grateful to my Dad who had a passion for politics and policy and instilled in me a desire to work within the field. I am grateful for my in-laws, Susan and Newt, and their never ending cheerleading. I would also like to acknowledge my siblings and extended family members who demonstrate work ethic every day. In particular, I would like to recognize my brother Lee, and sister-in-law Pat, who demonstrate strength in character despite life’s hardships. Thank you for your ever- positive outlook on life. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Tables .................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... ix Abstract ............................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 Historical Overview and Background to the Problem .................................................... 4 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 27 Brown Scholarship Fund ............................................................................................... 33 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 37 Research Questions ....................................................................................................... 38 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 38 Organization of the Study ............................................................................................. 41 Significance of the Study .............................................................................................. 42 Definition of Terms ....................................................................................................... 43 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 46 Brown v. Board ............................................................................................................. 46 Critical Race Theory ..................................................................................................... 64 Concerns on CRT and Transformation ......................................................................... 70 Restorative Justice ......................................................................................................... 72 Brown v. Board of Education Scholarship Fund and Program ..................................... 82 Summary Discussion ..................................................................................................... 86 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 89 Phenomenology ............................................................................................................. 89 Case Study ..................................................................................................................... 91 Site Selection ................................................................................................................. 92 Participant Selection .................................................................................................... 103 v Data Collection ............................................................................................................ 106 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 112 Reliability and Trustworthiness .................................................................................. 116 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 120 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 122 Brown v. Board of Education Scholarship Program and Fund ................................... 122 Individual Case Findings ............................................................................................. 123 Cross-Case Themes ..................................................................................................... 161 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 182 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 184 Restorative Justice Analysis ........................................................................................ 185 Brown Scholarship Fund Unfulfilled .......................................................................... 187 Comprehensive Restoration ........................................................................................ 191 Restorative Justice Considerations .............................................................................. 199 Reflections on Race Relations ..................................................................................... 201 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 205 Future Studies .............................................................................................................. 207 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 209 ENDNOTES ................................................................................................................... 210 Appendix A ....................................................................................................................