U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MATERIALS FLOW OF SULFUR By Joyce A. Ober Reston, VA Open-File Report 02–298 This report is preliminary and has not been reviewed for conformity with U.S. Geological Survey editorial standards (or with the North American Stratigraphic Code). Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the U.S. Government. CONTENTS Introduction................................................................................................................................................................................................ 4 The Global Sulfur Cycle ............................................................................................................................................................................ 6 The Natural Sulfur Cycle ....................................................................................................................................................................... 6 The Anthropogenic Sulfur Cycle............................................................................................................................................................ 7 Sulfur Supply ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 12 Frasch and other native sulfur .............................................................................................................................................................. 12 Recovered Sulfur.................................................................................................................................................................................. 15 Sulfur In Other Forms .......................................................................................................................................................................... 19 Sulfur Demand......................................................................................................................................................................................... 23 Domestic Consumption ........................................................................................................................................................................ 24 Sulfuric Acid ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 24 Agricultural Chemicals......................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Petroleum Alkylation ........................................................................................................................................................................... 30 Ore Processing...................................................................................................................................................................................... 33 Other Industrial and Chemical Uses..................................................................................................................................................... 35 Trade .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 43 Materials Flow of Sulfur.......................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Losses From Production and Processing.............................................................................................................................................. 48 Disposition After Consumption............................................................................................................................................................ 49 Cumulative Effect of Sulfur Production and Consumption ..................................................................................................................... 52 Effects of Production............................................................................................................................................................................ 52 Effects of Consumption........................................................................................................................................................................ 52 Summary.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 53 References Cited...................................................................................................................................................................................... 54 FIGURES 1. Graphic that illustrates the variety of ways that sulfur enters the environment and is transported throughout it ............................... 4 2. Chart that shows the many sulfur sources in the global cycle .......................................................................................................... 6 3. Chart that lists important environmental legislation that has been enacted in the United States since 1956, the year of the first such law .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 9 4. Maps that show how sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions have changed since 1980, the base year for the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990........................................................................................................................................................................ 10 5. Photograph that shows the last sulfur mine in the United States, Freeport-McMoRan Sulphur Inc.'s Main Pass Mine, that closed in August 2000...................................................................................................................................................................... 13 6. Illustration that shows the structure of a sulfur-containing salt dome and the details of the Frasch pump used to extract the sulfur from underground formations................................................................................................................................................. 13 7. Chart that shows the birth and demise of the Frasch sulfur industry in the United States................................................................ 14 8. Chart that shows the steady growth in recovered sulfur from petroleum refineries and natural gas since 1938 .............................. 15 9. Chart that shows how production of sulfur in all forms has changed over time............................................................................... 16 10. Flow diagram that shows the basic steps used in most sulfur recovery operations .......................................................................... 17 11. Diagram that illustrates the Claus sulfur recovery process used at natural gas processing facilities and petroleum refineries ........ 17 12. Chart that shows that sulfur production at petroleum refineries has increased at a faster rate than the refineries have increased input.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 18 13. Chart that shows historic production of byproduct sulfuric acid ...................................................................................................... 20 14. Chart that shows the production of pyrites in the United States ....................................................................................................... 21 15. Chart that shows the relative importance of pyrites as a source of world sulfur production ............................................................ 22 16. Flow diagram that shows the possible sources of sulfur and some of the possible end-use categories ............................................ 23 17. Chart that compares domestic sulfur production to consumption..................................................................................................... 24 18. Figure that shows the flow of sulfur in the United States in 2000.................................................................................................... 25 19. Chart that shows the end uses of sulfur and sulfuric acid................................................................................................................. 25 20. Flow diagram that illustrates the processes of a sulfur-burning, double-absorption sulfuric acid plant ........................................... 26 21. Flow diagram that illustrates the processes of a sulfuric acid plant for metallurgical feed gas ........................................................ 28 22. Flow diagram that shows the typical process followed at U.S. phosphate fertilizer production operations ..................................... 29 23. Diagram that shows the products derived at the various boiling points of crude oil .......................................................................