ADVANCING LIVELIHOOD WATER SECURITY IN THE RURAL GLOBAL SOUTH by Sameer H. Shah B.ES (Hons. Co-operative), University of Waterloo, 2012 M.Sc., The University of British Columbia, 2015 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Resources, Environment and Sustainability) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) April 2021 © Sameer H. Shah, 2021 The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the dissertation entitled: Advancing Livelihood Water Security in the Rural Global South submitted by Sameer H. Shah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Resources, Environment and Sustainability Examining Committee: Dr. Leila M. Harris, Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, and the Institute for Gender, Race, Sexuality and Social Justice, The University of British Columbia (UBC) Supervisor Dr. Hannah Wittman, Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, and Faculty of Land and Food Systems, The University of British Columbia (UBC) Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Mark Johnson, Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, and the Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, The University of British Columbia (UBC) Supervisory Committee Member Dr. Shannon M. Hagerman, Department of Forest Resources Management, The University of British Columbia (UBC) University Examiner Dr. David R. Boyd, Institute for Resources, Environment and Sustainability, and the School of Public Policy and Global Affairs, The University of British Columbia (UBC) University Examiner ii Abstract Climate change and variation, and rising demand for freshwater increasingly impact water security for humans, ecosystems, and integrated social-ecological systems. In the rural global South, diverse water-related risks interact with systemic inequalities to unevenly impact the assets, capabilities, and activities underpinning resource-based livelihoods. As such, livelihood water security – whether and to what extent people can avoid unacceptable risks, meet context- specific needs, and achieve self-defined aspirations – is critical for disadvantaged groups, without which they may experience pronounced impacts to their food and income security. This challenge has revealed significant research gaps in how rural livelihood water security concerns are conceptualized, studied, and addressed in local and regional contexts, including whether and to what extent equity and sustainability objectives and outcomes are reflected and achieved in water security approaches. In response, this dissertation i) undertakes a systematic scoping review of the English-language refereed scholarship to ascertain how water security for rural livelihoods in global South contexts is conceptualized and addressed; ii) conducts an empirical and multi-village analysis of the equity and sustainability effects associated with an over $1B USD water security program (“Jalyukt Shivar Abhiyan”) in Maharashtra state, India, intended to transform villages and agricultural livelihoods into “drought-free” systems; and iii) develops an integrative methodological and epistemological approach to analyze dynamics affecting the distribution of livelihood water security initiatives at larger policy-relevant scales. This dissertation was informed by an extensive review of scholarly research; ninety-four (94) interviews, including individual and focus-group meetings with key informants, and households in three drought-prone villages; and statistical analyses of secondary climate, agricultural, demographic, and water security project data in Maharashtra. It advances knowledge of how water (in)security for rural livelihoods is conceptualized, analyzed, and addressed in both scholarly and applied contexts in the global South, stresses the importance of advancing water security in holistic, widespread, and long-term ways, and identifies key considerations to support this approach. iii Lay Summary Over one billion people depend on water for livelihood activities, such as farming, in rural areas of the global South. However, systemic social and economic inequalities have meant not everyone has sufficient access to water for their livelihoods – meaning they are not water secure. In addition, hydrological stressors, such as climate change and variation, exacerbate livelihood water insecurity. In my dissertation, I critically explore how water security for rural livelihoods in the global South is conceptualized and applied in research and policy efforts, and to what extent they factor in concerns of equity and sustainability. To accomplish this, I synthesize knowledge from peer-reviewed literature and critically analyze the deficiencies associated with a large-scale water security program in Maharashtra, India. Overall, my dissertation demonstrates the need for, and importance of, advancing livelihood water security initiatives in holistic, widespread, and long-term ways, and identifies key strategies to support this approach. iv Preface This dissertation is my original and independent work. I identified the research problems, designed the methodological approaches, conducted data collection and analyzed the data (in certain cases, with the support of multiple Research Assistants), developed novel contributions to the literature, and wrote each Chapter in its entirety. My advisory committee (Drs. Leila M. Harris, Hannah Wittman, and Mark S. Johnson) provided critical and constructive feedback on the research design, analysis, and contributions of each Chapter. Chapters 2 through 4 were written as distinct manuscripts for publication in peer-reviewed journals. This has resulted in some repetition in the research contexts and methodological design sections between Chapters. These published articles will use terms like “we” instead of “I” to reflect, where relevant, co-authorship. Chapter 2, “How is water security conceptualized and practiced for rural livelihoods in the global South? A systematic scoping review”, is submitted to a peer-reviewed journal. I identified the research problem, designed the scoping review methodology, extracted and analyzed the data, and wrote the Chapter in its entirety. The research design was supported by Sally Taylor, subject librarian for Resources, Environment & Sustainability at The University of British Columbia. Drs. Lucy Rodina and Graham McDowell provided feedback on the search term criteria, coding manual, and screening phases. My advisory committee provided incisive comments that enhanced the clarity and refined the contributions of the Chapter. Chapter 3 is under review as a co-authored manuscript for publication in a peer-reviewed journal, as of August 2020. I designed the methodology and co-conducted the data collection with the support of two research assistants (Pooja Tanna and Nirmiti Tara Daw). Pooja Tanna, Nirmiti Tara Daw, and Sudha Shah supported the transcription process. The Society for Promoting Participative Ecosystem Management (SOPPECOM) provided logistical support in Maharashtra, and served as a local third-party contact for research subjects to raise any concerns or questions outside the “Field Team” (Tanna, Tara Daw, myself). These individuals are acknowledged in the dissertation and the Chapter. Co-authors Leila M. Harris, Mark S. Johnson, and Hannah Wittman provided critical and constructive feedback on the methodological design v and contributed to refining drafts of the Chapter. Leila M. Harris facilitated additional research funding, via the International WaTERS Research Network. Chapter 4 is under review as a co-authored manuscript for publication in a peer-reviewed journal, as of September 2020. I identified the research problem, conceptualized the contributions, collected the secondary quantitative data, completed the analyses, and wrote the Chapter in its entirety. Co-author Leila M. Harris provided feedback on each iteration of the draft. The support provided by individuals recognized in Chapter 3 informed the mixed- methodological design. Dr. Mark S. Johnson, Gaylean Davies, and Vikas Menghwani provided statistical advice. Dr. Mark S. Johnson, Dr. Hannah Wittman, and the EDGES Research Collaborative provided invaluable comments on earlier drafts. Chapter 5 (Conclusions) will be refined and adapted for submission to a peer-reviewed journal. I wrote the entirety of the Chapter. My advisory committee provided helpful feedback on earlier drafts. Co-authorship has not been determined at the stage of submission. This dissertation was financially supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada’s (SSHRC) Canada Graduate Scholarship (#767-2016-2400) and Michael Smith Foreign Supplement (#771-2017-0100), the International WaTERS Research Network, the Nehru Humanitarian Graduate Scholarship, the Liu Scholar Bottom Billion Grant (#349), and The University of British Columbia’s Four-Year Fellowship and Faculty of Science. The research, inclusive of all Post-Approval Activities (PAA) and renewal applications, was approved by the Behavioural Research Ethics Board at The University of British Columbia under Certificate #H17-02863 (“The Making of Water Secure Livelihoods in Western India”). vi Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................