ProgPrraogmramDDeevveelolpompenmt ent Lithium Ba tte ry Safe ty A look at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution’s program By Ronald H. Reif, Mark Liffers, Ned Forrester and Ken Peal WOODS HOLE OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTION ured in ampere-hours, Ah), higher energy density (WHOI) uses primary and secondary lithium batteries (as measured in watt-hours per unit weight, Wh/g) in a variety of oceanographic research applications. and lower cost per capacity. WPrimary (nonrechargeable) lithium batteries generally The Ah rating or capacity is a common battery rat - contain lithium metal, while most secondary (re- ing that is the maximum sustained amperage drawn chargeable) lithium batteries contain an ionic form of from a fully charged battery over a certain time (e.g., lithium (lithium-ion). Because lithium batteries contain 20 hours) to a point where the battery is at 100% depth more energy per unit weight or a relatively higher of discharge. Energy density is a ratio of the capacity energy density than conventional batteries, they have of a battery to weight (Ah/g). Sometimes, energy den - become popular and widely used in various applica - sity is expressed as capacity per unit volume of a bat - tions. The same properties that result in a high energy tery, Ah/cm 3. Batteries also can be rated in energy density, however, also contribute to potential hazards output if their average voltage during discharge is if the energy is released at a fast, uncontrolled rate. known. Energy output is determined by multiplying Multiple external and internal events involving capacity and voltage with units of watt-hours (Wh). primary and secondary lithium batteries (including Secondary or lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, not to hot cells, fires, ruptured cells and leaking cells) be confused with primary lithium batteries, do not prompted WHOI to develop and implement a com - contain metallic lithium. Li-ion batteries are recharge - prehensive lithium battery safety program. This arti - able batteries containing lithium intercalation anode cle describes lithium batteries and applications, materials, where the lithium ion moves from the hazards, controls, key elements of a comprehensive anode to the cathode during discharge and from the safety program, emergency procedures, waste man - cathode to the anode when charging. Advantages of agement and transportation requirements. Li-ion batteries when compared to equivalent re- chargeable batteries include higher energy density, Lithium Batteries & Applications higher output voltage, lighter weight, no memory Primary lithium batteries have lithium metal or effect, low self-discharge rate and faster charge rates; lithium compounds as an anode. Many different in addition, they do not contain highly toxic metals lithium battery chemistries are suitable for a variety such as nickel, cadmium, lead and mercury. of operating conditions. Advantages of lithium bat - Lithium batteries can be used in place of ordinary teries compared to alkaline batteries include lower alkaline cells in many devices. Although more costly weight, extended shelf life, higher capacity (as meas - initially, lithium cells provide much longer life, there - by minimizing battery replacement. Lithium batter - Ronald H. Reif, P.E., CSP, CIH, CHP, is the environmental, health and safety ies find application in many long-life, critical devices, director at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) in Woods Hole, MA. such as artificial pacemakers and other implantable He also serves as WHOI’s radiation safety officer, laser safety officer, biosafety electronic medical devices. Small lithium batteries officer and emergency coordinator. Before joining WHOI, Reif held various are commonly used in small, portable electronic positions within the U.S. Department of Energy complex, environmental devices, such as watches, digital cameras, remote car restoration sites, analytical laboratories and nuclear facilities. He holds a B.S. and starters and calculators, and as backup batteries in an M.S. in Physics from the University of Lowell and an M.S. in Environmental and computers and communication equipment. Waste Management from State University of New York at Stony Brook. Li-ion batteries are common in portable con - Mark Liffers, M.S., CSP, CIH, is president of Around The Clock Compliance Inc. in sumer electronics, such as cell phones and laptop Hingham, MA. He is a member of ASSE’s Greater Boston Chapter. computers, because of their high energy-to-weight ratios, lack of memory effect and relatively slow loss Ned Forrester is a senior engineer at WHOI. He holds a B.S. and an M.S. in of charge when not in use. In addition to consumer Electrical Engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology. electronics, Li-ion batteries are increasingly used in Ken Peal, M.A.Sc., is a senior engineer at WHOI. He holds a B.Eng. from defense, automotive, aerospace and research appli - McMaster University and an M.A.Sc. from the University of British Columbia. cations due to their high energy density. 32 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY FEBRUARY 2010 www.asse.org WHOI uses both primary lithium batteries and ious OBS components include lithium sulfuryl chlo - Li-ion batteries in various applications. One applica - ride cells and lithium thionyl chloride cells. Com- tion example for Li-ion batteries is the remote envi - plete packs for each OBS typically require between ronmental monitoring units (REMUS), a type of 100 and 150 lithium battery cells. These are D and autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). AUVs are double D-sized cells with a rated voltage of 3.6 to 3.9 robotic submarines that navigate at 3 to 5 knots V and rated cell capacities of 15 to 35 Ah. Photo 3 without being operated by a human crew. They are shows opened glass spheres with a) part of the bat - used for both scientific research and military opera - tery pack and b) the electronics. Photo 4 shows the tions, such as locating mines. long deployment OBS. There are several versions of REMUS. The REMUS-100 uses four 250 Wh battery modules each Lithium Battery Hazards containing 14 Li-ion cells that are arranged as 7 in From 2004 to 2008, WHOI experienced multiple series and 2 in parallel, yielding a nominal output of incidents involving primary lithium batteries. These 26 V and a total energy of 1,000 Wh. The REMUS- included off-gassing cells, leaking cells, hot cells and a Photo 1 (top) shows 6000, which operates to 6,000 m depth, is loaded fire/explosion. A November 2005 event involved a a REMUS-100 Li-ion with a pair of 5.5 kWh rechargeable Li-ion battery fire and subsequent explosion of an OBS that had been battery assembly assemblies containing a total of 16 battery modules deployed offshore near Puerto Rico. The fire occurred while Photo 2 (mid - each providing 690 Wh. Photo 1 shows the REMUS- aboard a research vessel approximately 30 hours after dle) shows a pair of 100 Li-ion battery assembly and Photo 2 shows a recovery from the ocean and during the data offload - REMUS-6000 battery pair of REMUS-6000 battery assemblies. ing phase. Fortunately, no injuries occurred. assemblies. An application example of primary lithium bat - teries is ocean bottom seismographs (OBS), which are ocean floor seismic-monitoring instruments. OBS measure both earthquake-generated seismic waves and artificial sources. Two types of OBS are operated at WHOI: short-deployment and long- deployment. Short-deployment OBS are relatively small and light for easy deployment and recovery. With a 6-month battery capacity, they are designed for relatively short-term experiments and record high frequency earth motions. Long-deployment OBS can be deployed for a year or more to record earth motions. Four orange fiberglass “hardhats” that are mounted on a plastic grillwork contain primary lithium batteries and elec - tronics. A differential pressure gauge measures earthquake-generated waves in the water. The seis - mometer sensor is housed in a metal sphere sus - pended by a corrodible link. When an OBS is deployed, the link corrodes, positioning the seis - mometer on the seafloor. The primary lithium batteries used to power var - Photo 3 (a & b): Two opened glass spheres, one with primary lithium batteries (left) and one with electronics (right). www.asse.org FEBRUARY 2010 PROFESSIONAL SAFETY 33 Photo 4: In this long batteries are engulfed in the fire. It was determined deployment ocean that the Halon fire extinguishing systems used in bottom seismograph, aircraft cargo compartments would not extinguish four orange fiberglass the primary lithium battery fire and that the pres - “hardhats” are mount - sure pulse from the burning batteries had the poten - ed on a plastic grill - tial to breach the cargo compartment liner and work containing spread the fire into the aircraft. primary lithium batter - Rechargeable Li-ion batteries have also been evalu - ies and electronics. ated by FAA (2006). These batteries also came under the scrutiny of DOT and FAA following the in-flight fire on a United Parcel Service DC-8 freighter aircraft Based on an internal investigation, the direct that was on approach to land in Philadelphia in 2006 cause of the fire and subsequent explosion was the (NTSB, 2007). However, FAA concluded that Halon unintended application of external voltage to a pri - was able to extinguish the Li-ion battery fire in the test. mary lithium battery pack housed in a sealed glass Regarding transportation safety, DOT concluded sphere that was not protected with an output diode. that lithium batteries, like other products which con -