View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by The Research Repository @ WVU (West Virginia University) Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports 2013 The Retreats of Reconstruction: Race, Leisure, and the Politics of Segregation at the New Jersey Shore, 1865--1920 David E. Goldberg West Virginia University Follow this and additional works at: https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd Recommended Citation Goldberg, David E., "The Retreats of Reconstruction: Race, Leisure, and the Politics of Segregation at the New Jersey Shore, 1865--1920" (2013). Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports. 442. https://researchrepository.wvu.edu/etd/442 This Dissertation is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by the The Research Repository @ WVU with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Dissertation in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you must obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/ or on the work itself. This Dissertation has been accepted for inclusion in WVU Graduate Theses, Dissertations, and Problem Reports collection by an authorized administrator of The Research Repository @ WVU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Retreats of Reconstruction: Race, Leisure, and the Politics of Segregation at the New Jersey Shore, 1865-1920 David E. Goldberg Dissertation submitted to the Eberly College of Arts & Sciences at West Virginia University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Aaron Sheehan-Dean, Ph.D., Chair Dr. Brian Luskey, Ph.D. Dr. Ken Fones-Wolf, Ph.D. Krystal Frazier, Ph.D. Peter Carmichael, Ph.D. Department of History Morgantown, WV 2013 Keywords: Segregation, Civil Rights, Leisure Copyright 2013 David E. Goldberg ABSTRACT The Retreats of Reconstruction: Race, Leisure, and the Politics of Segregation at the New Jersey Shore, 1865-1920 David E. Goldberg This dissertation examines the political meanings of consumption and racial segregation in the public and commercial leisure spaces of the New Jersey shore during the Reconstruction era. Moving beyond issues of identity, racial violence, and labor disputes, I show how Jim Crow unfolded and operated in the post-Civil War North by emphasizing the importance of political economy and ideas about public health and welfare. Beginning in the 1880s, ideas about the rights and health of consumers became more important in helping shape the meanings of freedom than did the triumph of free labor ideology. The rise of mass consumption as a guiding principle of economic growth, and the debates about political economy that it spurred—intertwined with the ideologies that led to Jim Crow segregation at the Jersey shore. Throughout the late-nineteenth century, both whites and blacks used the ideologies of the marketplace to shape and resist segregation at northern beach resorts. White segregationists argued that Jim Crow laws were legal and necessary since they preserved the sanctity of property, privacy, and social propriety. In contrast, African Americans employed a variety of consumer-focused tactics to desegregate northern beach towns, shape their own independent leisure districts, and discredit the environmental inequalities of service economies. By making consumer rights and public health central to the struggle against segregation, northern black activists successfully made sites of entertainment and consumption critical battlegrounds in a national campaign for civil rights, market fairness, and environmental justice during the early Jim Crow era. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The men and women who fought for freedom on the beaches of the New Jersey shore reminded me that we owe most of our personal triumphs to those who walk beside us. Over the past seven years, this project has benefited from an untold number of professors, advisors, archivists, students, classmates, roommates, friends, family members, conference panelists, and anonymous reviewers who helped shape and influence this dissertation. Time and again, I was struck by their devotion, knowledge, and patience as I shared early drafts, occasional frustrations, and “humbly” crossed the finish line. This project started as a seminar paper in Dr. Judy Giesberg’s Reconstruction course at Villanova University in 2006. As the original champion of this topic, I owe immense gratitude to her for her thoughtful reading of early drafts and continued support throughout the years. Dr. Peter Carmichael next directed the project through its initial stages as a Dissertation proposal at West Virginia University. Pete’s “tenacious” and satirical editing helped fine-tune its argument(s) and clarify its prose. He continues to shape and guide my career in immeasurable ways, and I thank him for his continued support, friendship, and impressive network of connections within the profession. After departing WVU in 2010, Pete graciously passed the torch to Aaron Sheehan-Dean, whose seamless guidance of this project’s final stages is a reflection of his immense editorial talent. Ken Fones-Wolf, Brian Luskey, Krystal Frazier, and John Ernest each brought a diverse set of skills and individual expertise to the project. I hope they will find that the final draft is a reflection of their consistent interest and substantive feedback on its earlier drafts. iii In between writing and researching, I had an opportunity to teach hundreds of students at both Villanova University and West Virginia University. These talented and inspiring men and women provided welcomed reprieves from the anonymity of the scholar’s life. It was my pleasure to be their professor and I wish them all the best in their own professional careers. Nate Hall and Timmy Poydenis—you’re still the best! These research and writing breaks were also spent in the company of many friends and family members, especially those from my days at Elizabethtown College. To Matt Woehnker, Eric Wetzel, Mike Grecco, Brian Bonner, and Steve Luongo, along with the countless other Blue Jays—thank you for the glory days! Since then, I’ve had the privilege of meeting many important colleagues and graduate school friends. As an undergraduate student, Dr. David Brown taught me how to be a scholar and his career continues to be a model for aspiring historians. At WVU, I was lucky to serve as a teaching assistant for Tyler Boulware, who has proven time and again to be an invaluable teaching mentor and professional sounding board. I also wish to thank and recognize Brandon Williams, Joe Rizzo, Cara Snider, Josh Esposito, Karina Garcia, Lauren Thompson, Joel Christenson, David Williams, Stuart Collins, and Dan Rutledge. Each of you greatly aided in the personal and scholarly enjoyment of my time at Villanova and WVU. Thank you for your guidance, patience, and most importantly, the much-needed comic relief. Of course, I especially wish to thank my parents. My mom was my first editor and continues to nourish my personal and professional life with her boundless love, unyielding support, and daily conversation. From the ball fields to the classroom, my iv father has consistently proven to be an impeccable model of what it means to be a man, father, and professional. I hope this dissertation resembles the values they both continue to exude. Thank you as well to my sister Gabrielle, my grandparents Barney and Elaine Goldberg, and my “every loving grandmother” Josie Christenson, who provided not only love and support, but free room and board! Lastly, I wish to thank two people who provided the “spiritual” introduction to this project. In 2003, Matt Woehnker introduced me to the music and songbook of Bruce Springsteen. Since then, the Boss’s lyrics and anthems have not only bonded our friendship, but also served as a constant source of rejuvenation and inspiration during this project’s lengthy tenure. In them I discovered the magic of the Jerseys shore’s mystical and enigmatic hold over American culture, and was inspired to narrate the stories and activism of those who also “had a notion” to fight for a free and socially responsible society. Thanks Bruce and Matt! v Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iii Introduction: “That Vexatious Bathing Question” ..............................................................................1 Chapter One: The Struggle to Define Segregation, 1861-1893 ........................................................ 21 Chapter Two: Occupying Jim Crow, 1885-1893 ............................................................................... 53 Chapter Three: Marketing and Managing Segregation, 1893-1900 .................................................... 86 Chapter Four: Boycotting Jim Crow, 1893-1920 ............................................................................. 117 Chapter Five: Cleaning Up Jim Crow, 1900-1920 .......................................................................... 154 Conclusion: “You’ll Have to Use Your Imagination”: Remembering Segregated Summers ....... 187 Bibliography ............................................................................................................