Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Government of the University of Canberra Stefanus Sampe Political Parties and Voter Mobilisation in Local Government Elections in Indonesia: the case of Manado City January 2015 Abstract Democratisation and decentralisation in Indonesia have brought significant changes in local politics, especially concerning elections. Since the enactment of Law 32/2004 on Local Government, the local executive elections in Indonesia, which were previously done by the local councils, have been carried out directly by the people. People have been given the opportunity to exercise their right to determine their leaders at the local level. Likewise, political parties have seized the opportunity to participate in local elections by recruiting candidates and mobilising voters. The direct local government election has become a central element in Indonesia’s decentralisation policy. Through the election, the local people are encouraged to participate in choosing their leaders and passing judgment on government’s performance. However, there is far less research and writing on local elections than on national elections, both in Indonesia and in developing countries more generally. This thesis aims to make a contribution to filling this gap in the literature on local election by in-depth case study research on electoral mobilisation undertaken by political parties in the local government elections in Indonesia. The research examines in detail the ways in which political parties in an Indonesian city, Manado, go about mobilising citizens to vote for their candidate and seeks different actors’ views on the effectiveness on the various mobilisation techniques. This research uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches to examine the 2010 local government election in Manado City. These methods include in-depth interviewing of the local leaders of political parties, the heads of campaign teams, the candidates, the personnel of the local electoral organisations, the representatives of non-government organisations (NGOs) which monitored the election, mass media personnel, and selected voters in the local community. Local newspapers were also consulted to follow the mobilisation undertaken by political parties in the Manado local election. In addition, direct observation had been done during the 2010 local government election in Manado City. The main findings include a diversity of opinion on the effectiveness of mobilisation strategies. Also, voters tend to choose candidates on personal merits not party affiliation but parties are essential for mobilising voters. i Acknowledgements AD MAIOREM DEI GLORIAM. To the greater glory of God who has granted me His graces to complete this work and blessed me by His endless love, mercy and power in all my life. To Him I dedicate this work and give thanks. This thesis has been successfully completed with the support of many people and organisations whom I want to thank and appreciate in this note. First and foremost, I would like to express my most sincere gratitude and greatest appreciation to Professor Mark Turner, as my primary supervisor, for his continuous support, invaluable guidance, comments and corrections as well as giving me valuable time for consultations to complete this thesis. He patiently guided me to overcome many obstacles in doing and accomplishing this thesis. My heartfelt gratitude is also headed to Dr Anthea McCarthy-Jones for her willingness to be my second supervisor, and for her critical and constructive ideas, suggestions and challenges, which all contributed significantly to make this thesis as it is now. My sincere gratitude also goes to Lulu Respall-Turner for editing and proofreading this thesis to be better. I also wish to thank the Indonesian Higher Education General Directorate (DITJEN DIKTI) for the scholarship allowing me to continue my study in the doctoral degree in University of Canberra; and to the Department of Public Administration, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Sam Ratulangi University, for giving me permission to leave the task of teaching as to study abroad. I am really grateful for the greatest support and understanding of my beloved wife, Helen Tambengie, SE.Ak, MSi; my beloved sons, Farrell Athanasius Sampe, and Darrell Ignasius Sampe. My immeasurable gratitude and grateful appreciations also go to my father, Matheus Ka’ka Sampe, BA, who knew I would continue my doctoral degree study but never knew that I have finished it; my mother, Juliana Mokorimban, who looks forward the completion of my study with her continous prayers; my sister, Yacintha Sampe, SSos; my brothers and brother- in-law, Yohanes Sampe, SH, Paulus Sampe, SP and Stevi Tamon; and my sweet niece, Prita. My thankfulness is also given to all my extended family members for their support and prayers especially to my parents in law, my sisters in law Shirley and Doris, my nephews, Aldi and Ivan. Their supports made it easy for me to work and study. Finally, I am thankful to all friends in Canberra with whom I have spent time together to enjoy the academic and social life. v Tables of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... i Form B Certificate of Authorship…………………………………………………..…………iii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... v Tables of Contents .................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... xiii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................ xvii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... xix List of Appendix .................................................................................................................... xxiii Chapter One: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 Objectives of the research ............................................................................................ 10 Research questions ....................................................................................................... 11 Scope of the research .................................................................................................... 11 Significance of the study .............................................................................................. 12 Structure of the research ............................................................................................... 12 Chapter Two: Definitions, Functions and Types of Political Parties: A Literature Review ..................................................................................................................................... 15 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 15 The Origins of Political Parties .................................................................................... 15 Defining Political Party ................................................................................................ 19 Roles of Political Parties .............................................................................................. 25 Legitimacy ........................................................................................................ 26 Recruitment ...................................................................................................... 28 Coalitions ......................................................................................................... 32 Upward Pressure .............................................................................................. 33 Political Socialisation ....................................................................................... 34 Public Policy .................................................................................................... 35 Political Stability .............................................................................................. 36 A Typology of Political Parties .................................................................................... 37 Elite-Based Parties ........................................................................................... 39 Mass-Based Parties .......................................................................................... 40 Ethnicity-Based Parties .................................................................................... 41 Electoralist Parties ............................................................................................ 42 vii Movement Parties ............................................................................................. 45 Voter Mobilisation ....................................................................................................... 46 Candidates and Campaign Teams .................................................................... 50 Money