Iraq and the Assyrian Unimagining: Illuminating Scaled Suffering and a Hierarchy of Genocide from Simele to Anfal by Sargon George Donabed A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto © Copyright by Sargon George Donabed, 2010 Iraq and the Assyrian Unimagining: Illuminating Scaled Suffering and a Hierarchy of Genocide from Simele to Anfal Doctor of Philosophy 2010 Sargon George Donabed Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto Abstract The 1933 genocidal attacks on Assyrians in the Simele region defined the birth of the nascent Iraqi nation and identity. Iraq has ever been in the spotlight of ethnic and cultural strife, especially concerning Sunni-Shia animosity, and more recently in dealing with the Kurdish people and Iraqi Kurdistan. In most cases, however, the Assyrians are completely neglected from scholarship concerning Iraq and its peoples. This work reinserts the Assyrian people into the fabric of Iraq and discusses the violent and non- violent suppression of Assyrian identity and culture through genocide, cultural genocide, and ethnic cleansing. Three fundamental factors emerge from this reinsertion with respect to Iraq and genocide. First, this approach introduces an often-neglected element in Iraqi studies: the inclusion of minorities, or micro-minorities, within the existing discourse on Iraqi studies. Second, it contributes to genocide studies by examining the impact of the non-physical, or cultural, aspect of genocide. Further, it discusses the importance of the Assyrian case in Iraq for understanding Iraqi history, and serves as a case in point of scaling suffering and for understanding how and why a hierarchy of genocide exists. ii Acknowledgements I cannot begin to thank all the people who have helped me over the years while I was writing this dissertation. Writing such a work is never a one-person job. First and foremost, I would like to thank my family for their constant love, support, and encouragement. To my father, mother, and brother for your physical, mental and spiritual support all my life, for teaching me the value of struggle and perseverance, and for your unwavering faith in me. This simple statement of thanks is certainly not enough, yet a million would be too little. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Amir Harrak, and committee members Dr. Amir Hassanpour, Dr. Paul-Alain Beaulieu, and Dr. Jens Hanssen for your constant support. It was always a delight to speak to all of them throughout the years. Their comments and insights into my work have made both the research and analytical work superior, and their belief in the work has given me a sense of accomplishment that can only come from continued encouragement and positive and constructive criticism. I certainly never thought this topic would be so well received, to which I owe my supervisor a huge thanks for his keen sense of judgment. Specifically, to Professors Hassanpour and Hanssen, who painstakingly guided the theoretical framework and analysis of this work, especially close to its completion, when they had a million other things in the works. Special gratitude goes to Shamiram Zendo for her amazing, excellent help in translating numerous government documents, which helped me finish in some reasonable manner of time. Thanks also to Maya Hanna, who helped with a thorn-in-my-side iii document last minute. Also, many thanks to Shamiran Mako and Ferida Danyal for their aid with much needed clarifications. Thanks to Dr. Stephen Batiuk for his unfathomable understanding of GIS and other mapping work, without which the renditions within this dissertation would not be possible. Much appreciation goes to Dr. Heather Snow for her amazing editing skills. Also, thanks to my brother, Ninos Donabed, for his uncanny knack for learning something overnight (such as GIS). Much gratitude also goes to the late Dr. Hirmis Aboona and Bishop Emmanuel Emmanuel for their aid with setting an academic focus for the oral segment of the research. To all my friends who have been an outlet from the rigors of academic work, and a great help with it as well, I can only say thanks. Much love and respect goes to Anna and Manuel Sousa and family for their support and adoption of me upon my arrival in Toronto. This work was only possible through Anna’s daily assistance, both inside (as graduate administrator of NMC) and outside the department. It has been a great blessing. To local and international Assyrian organizations who helped with the collection of materials; specifically to Firas Jatou, president of the Assyrian Academic Society, thanks for the access to materials collected from the USDOS and those directly from Iraq. Thanks again to Dr. Amir Hassanpour and Dr. Dean Sharpe of the Research Ethics Committee, who helped me obtain the first REB approval of a dissertation in the NMC department at the University of Toronto. To my dear Shamiran for all her help, love, patience, and numerous “turtle-like” qualities, I say thanks for reminding me of the grace of cats. Cheeks, Ghost, Monster, and Tails, have made the lengthy days and nights delightfully bearable and wonderfully entertaining. iv Finally, I must thank all those wonderful participants who took part in my oral interviews. This work is yours as much as it is mine. I hope I did their life stories justice. This work is dedicated to the memory of my dear colleague, Professor Fuat Deniz (1967–2007) for inspiring a wandering young man to try his hand at academia. It was an honor to know him, if even for a short time. To Professor Father Brian Peckham (1934– 2008), an remarkable teacher and kind friend who helped me to focus and to realize it is only worth doing if you truly enjoy it. To Dr. Hirmis Aboona (1940–2009), who in many ways paved the way for my own research. And finally, to James Oliver Rigney, Jr. (Robert Jordan, 1948–2007), who created a world with friends who have been my companions for many years. All are all greatly missed. v Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements............................................................................................................iii Table of Contents............................................................................................................... vi List of Figures.................................................................................................................... ix List of Tables ...................................................................................................................xiii Introduction....................................................................................................................... xv Renewed International Interest in Iraq.................................................................... xvii The Issue of Scaled Suffering.................................................................................. xix Key Sources and Mapping Assyrians .......................................................................... xxi Methodological Approach .......................................................................................... xxx Direction of the Work ..............................................................................................xxxiii Chapter 1: Communal Identity and Contemporary Scholarship......................................... 1 The Assyrians: Natives Before Iraq................................................................................ 1 Contributions to Fields of Study..................................................................................... 6 Identity and Nationalism............................................................................................. 6 Genocide Studies ...................................................................................................... 20 Iraqi Studies .............................................................................................................. 32 Chapter 2: Deteriorating Empires, Colonial Expansion, and a Vulnerable Minority....... 41 World War I .................................................................................................................. 45 The Subsequent Years and the Assyrian Settlement................................................. 47 Prominent Assyrians ................................................................................................. 48 British Favor and the Rise of Inter-Communal Fragmentation .................................... 57 The Period of the Iraq Levies.................................................................................... 61 Chapter 3: Iraq and the Building of an Arab Nation-State ............................................... 66 1933 Simele Massacres................................................................................................. 66 Iraqi Government Reaction....................................................................................... 69 Research Concerning Simele .................................................................................... 73 Road to the Republic..................................................................................................... 76 Assyrians and the ICP..............................................................................................