i Foreword The international community can no longer address the new challenges posed by non-state actors without adopting a unified, cooperative and supportive approach. One of the fundamental pillars in countering terrorism and governing security in the European Union (EU) involves information and intelligence sharing as this is the first step in enhancing such cooperation in the security area. The sharing of intelligence between EU Member States seems like a simple task at first glance, but under the surface working together is not always as easy as it seems. Decision makers and agencies face legal, technical, political, cultural, organizational and even personal obstacles when sharing information. The relevant governmental and inter-governmental organizations have to overcome such obstacles and hesitation because they delay effective counter-terrorism coordination in the long-term. To address such issues in information sharing, UNICRI has researched and published a report on ‘Counter-Terrorism Intelligence Cooperation in the European Union’. It aims to raise awareness regarding the relevant obstacles, trigger debate regarding the potential solutions and come up with innovative alternatives. The report argues for greater information flow from the national level to the international EU level. The research reveals that personal contacts and informal arrangements play a crucial role in the initiation and maintenance of intelligence cooperation relations. Counter-terrorism may therefore require a much greater investment in informal intelligence-sharing arrangements than has thus far been acknowledged. This report does not stand alone, the Institute also works towards security governance by identifying common goals, maximizing investments, establishing a common language and creating the organizational framework needed for a permanent and sustained dialogue and information sharing. UNICRI is fully aware of the role intelligence cooperation has to play and sees this Report as another cooperative step forward in advancing security, serving justice and building peace. Sandro Calvani Director of UNICRI ii Acknowledgement This research was made possible by the generous contribution of Compagnia di San Paolo (Italy), Riksbankens Jubileumsfond (Sweden) and VolkswagenStiftung (Germany). I gratefully acknowledge the support of: Francesco Marelli, Francesco Cappè and Doris Buddenberg of UNICRI; Pavel Maximov for layout and graphics; Mari Kalliala of Europol; Prosecutor Stefano Dambruoso; Nicolò Russo Perez of the Compagnia di San Paolo; Christopher Langton of the International Institute for Strategic Studies; prof.mr.dr. E.R. Muller; all interviewees; all contributors; my family and friends. Disclaimer The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole responsibility of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of UNICRI. Eveline R. Hertzberger July 2007 Turin, Italy iii Abstract Counter-terrorism intelligence sharing in the European Union is needed to provide EU decision makers with better intelligence support. Such decision makers in the Second and Third Pillar are the Council, the Commission, the Counter-terrorism Coordinator and the High Representative. Together with several EU information agencies and national intelligence and security services, they comprise the European intelligence community. Information flow in the EU is bottom-up: information flows from national intelligence and security services, via EU information agencies, to EU decision makers in the Second and Third Pillar. However, intelligence support to EU decision makers has been insufficient. Therefore, this study aims to answer the question: what are the most important problems in counter-terrorism intelligence sharing within the European Union, and how can these problems be resolved? Better intelligence cooperation would lead to better intelligence support to EU decision makers and a substantial added value for Member States, motivating them to continue to submit intelligence to the European level. The European intelligence community hosts four EU information agencies: the European Police Organization (Europol), the Joint Situation Center (SitCen), the Intelligence Division of the European Union Military Staff (INTDIV EUMS), and the European Union Satellite Center (EUSC). SitCen and Europol both have an explicit counter-terrorism mandate. They collect intelligence from national intelligence and security services, and analyse and process this intelligence for EU and national decision makers. Several political, cultural, technical, and organizational problems are continuing to hamper counter- terrorism intelligence cooperation in the EU. A special focus of this study lies on the use of personal contacts and informal arrangements of information sharing to improve intelligence cooperation. It is argued that personal contacts are crucial in initiating and maintaining relationships of intelligence sharing. Investing in informal sharing arrangements and other ‘soft’ measures would be an important step for the EU to stimulate counter-terrorism intelligence cooperation. Key words counter-terrorism; intelligence; information sharing; Europol; SitCen; informal sharing iv Counter-Terrorism Intelligence Cooperation in the European Union 1 Introduction ....................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Literature review ........................................................................................ 6 1.3 Methods ....................................................................................................... 9 1.4 Research framework ................................................................................ 10 1.5 Definitions .................................................................................................. 12 1.6 Reading guidelines ................................................................................... 15 2 The Changing Security Environment of the EU ................................19 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 19 2.2 The changing security environment ........................................................ 19 2.3 Developments in intelligence .................................................................. 24 2.4 The EU as a security actor ....................................................................... 29 2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 32 3 The use of intelligence to combat terrorism ...................................37 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 37 3.2 Introduction to types of intelligence ........................................................ 37 3.3 Measures to combat terrorism ................................................................ 40 3.4 The use of intelligence to combat terrorism .......................................... 43 3.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 48 4 The European intelligence community ...........................................51 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................51 4.2 Description of the EU Intelligence Community ...................................... 52 4.3 The availability principle ........................................................................... 55 4.4 EU institutional framework for counter-terrorism .................................. 58 4.5 National – national sharing ..................................................................... 62 4.6 National – European sharing ................................................................... 65 4.7 The Joint Situation Center (SitCen) ......................................................... 66 4.8 Sharing with SitCen ...................................................................................71 4.9 European Police Organization (Europol) ................................................. 73 4.10 Sharing with Europol ................................................................................. 76 4.11 The European Union Satellite Center (EUSC) ......................................... 82 4.12 The Intelligence Division of the EU Military Staff (INTDIV) .................... 84 v 4.13 Other bilateral and multilateral initiatives .............................................. 85 4.14 European – European sharing ................................................................ 86 4.15 The Prüm Treaty ....................................................................................... 89 4.16 Conclusion ................................................................................................. 90 5 General Problems in Intelligence Cooperation ...............................95 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 95 5.2 Improved intelligence cooperation in the EU ........................................ 95 5.3 Political problems .................................................................................... 101 5.4 Cultural problems.................................................................................... 105 5.5 Organizational problems .......................................................................