An Introduction to the Raptors of Southeast Asia Status, Identification, Biology and Conservation Yong Ding Li Nature Society (Singapore), Bird Group and Southeast Asian Biodiversity Society Supported by: Asian Raptor Research and Conservation Network An Introduction to the Raptors of Southeast Asia Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2 2. What is a raptor? 4 3. Diversity of raptors in Southeast Asia 6 4. Taxonomy and nomenclature 9 5. Identification of raptor species 5.1 Overview 10 5.2 Identification of perched raptors 11 5.3 Identification of flying raptors 12 5.4 Identification using voice 13 5.5 Polymorphism 13 5.6 Moulting 13 6. Raptor habitats in Southeast Asia 6.1 Tropical evergreen and subtropical forests 14 6.2 Mixed deciduous forests 15 6.3 Dry deciduous forests 16 6.4 Mangroves 16 6.5 Open country 17 6.6 Human-modified habitats 17 7. Raptor behavioral ecology 7.1 Overview 18 7.2 Hunting and feeding 18 7.3 Territoriality and breeding 20 7.4 Migration 21 7.4.1 Why migrate? 22 7.4.2 Major migration sites in Southeast Asia 22 7.4.3 Phenology and geography of migration 23 7.4.4 Raptor migration in Singapore 24 8. Conservation of raptors in Southeast Asia 8.1 Overview 27 8.2 Why conserve raptors? 27 8.3 Threats to raptors 28 9. Surveying raptors 9.1 Overview 30 9.2 Surveying diurnal migrating raptors 31 9.3 Surveying resident raptors 31 9.3.1 Simple ‘look-see’ counts for single species 31 9.3.2 Roadside surveys for soaring raptors 31 9.3.3 Raptor tracking 31 9.4 The raptor literature 32 10. Glossary of terms 33 11. Selected references 34 1 An Introduction to the Raptors of Southeast Asia 1. Introduction................... ........................... ................... ................ ... Southeast Asia, a region that falls entirely within the tropics is one of the greatest repositories of biodiversity in the world. This is exemplified by the fact that almost every area of it falls under a hotspot of biodiversity, as defined in Mittermeier et al. (2004). Birds, a dominant feature of the larger Southeast Asian landscape are represented by over 2000 species, or some 20% of the world’s birdlife. Raptors, member of the avian order Accipitriformes which is represented by nearly 80 species in South-east Asia, form a little more than 5% of the region’s bird fauna, but are disproportionately more conspicuous and well-known than most of the region’s other bird species. One of the reasons for this is that raptors are large, conspicuous, charismatic and powerful-looking, making them easily identified by the resident populace. Not surprisingly, raptors feature in the national symbols of two Southeast Asian countries, Indonesia and the Philippines, clearly highlighting their close cultural connections with the peoples of the region. Figure 1. A brief sampling of Southeast Asian raptors. (Top left) Common buzzard (Con Foley), (Top central) Crested serpent eagle (Ingo Waschkies), (Top right) Rufous-bellied eagle (Ingo Waschkies), (Bottom left) Black-thighed falconet (Con Foley), (Bottom right) Black baza (Ingo Waschkies) In this review, on top of the frequently used treatment of Southeast Asia as including only countries on mainland Southeast Asia (e.g. Robson 2002) which is incomplete, I have also 2 An Introduction to the Raptors of Southeast Asia included the islands of the Greater Sundas (e.g. Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Bali), the Philippine islands and the many islands of Wallacea (e.g. Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda islands) as there are too much faunal elements in common, particularly raptor diversity which is largely shared between these areas. The region defined here as Southeast Asia has highly varied vegetation, and whilst large areas of it are covered with evergreen tropical forests, there are also significant areas of other vegetation types like deciduous, mangrove (e.g. parts of east Sumatra, south Borneo), peat swamp (e.g. Borneo) and coniferous forests (e.g. north Thailand, southern Vietnam), as well as small areas of thorn scrub (e.g. central Myanmar). A striking feature of the landscape in Southeast Asia is that much of it is rugged and mountainous, rising to a maximum elevation of 5,880 m at Hkakabo Razi in northernmost Myanmar. Other major peaks include Kinabalu (4,095m) in the Crocker range in Borneo, and Kerinci (3,800m) in the Barisan range of Sumatra. Figure 2. Map of mainland and insular Southeast Asia, showing major islands and seas. With such varied geography and vegetation zones, it is not surprising that the region holds nearly 30% of the world’s raptor species, including the world’s largest (Cinereous vulture, an increasingly regular migrant) and smallest raptors (White-fronted falconet, endemic to north Borneo), as well as a mind-boggling list of endemic raptor species on many of the region’s forested islands, the most spectacular being the Philippine eagle of Mindanao, Luzon and intervening islands. Furthermore, it is also worth nothing that the region falls along a number of major fly-ways for raptors migrating between Northeast Asia and Southeast Asia in the boreal winter. For example, every autumn, tens of thousands of sparrowhawks and honey-buzzards 3 An Introduction to the Raptors of Southeast Asia would pass through a number of sites along the Thai-Malay peninsula, Sumatra and Java as they migrate south into the region’s many tropical islands. The pages of this review cover a number of areas on raptor biology, with the primary focus on identification, status and behavioral ecology of Southeast Asian raptors, as well as some supplementary material on how to conduct simple surveys of raptors. Although the thirty or so pages of text would definitely not do justice to the region’s magnificent raptor fauna, it is hoped that readers would be given a fairly comprehensive, yet broad overview of the diversity and biology of the numerous hawks and falcons that inhabit Southeast Asia. 2. What is a raptor?.................. ................... ................... ............... .... The term ‘raptor’ has a Latin origin, meaning ‘to seize’ and has been loosely applied to a number of other predatory birds, especially owls which are sometimes described as ‘nocturnal raptors’ as well as some groups of dinosaurs. In strict sense, it is used to define members of the avian order Accipitriformes, which includes three families, the largest being the hawks and eagles (Accipitridae), falcons (Falconidae) and lastly, the monotypic osprey (Pandionidae). A number of other carnivorous birds (e.g. American vultures, secretary bird), whilst sharing some similar behavioral and morphological features have been found to be genetically distinct and are thus no longer considered as true raptors. Figure 3. Two typical raptors that occur in Southeast Asia: (Left) Oriental honey-buzzard is migratory, but also breeds in the region, (Right) the resident Grey-headed fish eagle. All members of the Accipitriformes share a number of general morphological features though not all are entirely carnivorous as popularly thought. The classic exception is the Palm-nut vulture, a West African species that has a diet largely constituted of the fruits of the Oil Palm. In general, raptors show the typical hooked beaked (to varying extents depending on diet) and sharp claws, all morphological adaptations to carnivory. Many raptors exhibit reversed sexual dimorphism where the females are larger than the males, and this has been postulated to be influenced by food specialisation. Raptors are generally good fliers, and a significant number are 4 An Introduction to the Raptors of Southeast Asia migratory, performing annual migrations covering thousands of kilometers. This explains the relatively large wing area (and hence wing-loading) of many species though this again is variable, and is subjected to the raptor’s habits and ecology. Large to medium-sized hawks like the many Aquila eagles and Circus harriers that hunt in open grassy plains has long broad wings that are important for soaring for long periods over open areas during their search for prey. Hawks that occur in forests on the other hand have shorter, but generally broader wings that allow them to maneuver easily under the canopy and one good example is the Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi. Sitting at the other hand of the spectrum are the falcons, powerful hunters with generally long, pointed wings and sleek bodies that allow for rapid, spectacular dives during hunting. The most well-known of the falcons, the nearly cosmopolitan Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus which occurs in Southeast Asia as a resident and migrant, can reach speeds of nearly 300km/h when diving and this feat would not be possible if not for its wing-shape and overall streamlined build. Figure 4b. (Below) Wing topography of a stylized raptor in flight showing the general structure of the upperwing and the underwing. Figure 4a. (Above) Generalised topography of a perched raptor from a profile view. 5 An Introduction to the Raptors of Southeast Asia 3. Diversity of raptors in South-east Asia.................. ............. ...... .... Over sixty species of hawks and falcons breed in Southeast Asia, making it one of the richest areas for raptor diversity in the world. This is augmented every winter by nearly 20 species of migratory raptors from temperate central and northern Asia, many which fly south in large spectacular flocks in excess of tens of thousands of birds along the major migratory fly-ways. Figure 5. Habitats of some eastern Palearctic migratory raptors. (Left) Taiga and steppe in northern Mongolia, home of Amur falcons, Black kites and Steppe eagle. (Right) Deciduous woodland in north- eastern China, home of Japanese sparrowhawk and Oriental honey-buzzard. Southeast Asia is home to a number of raptor genera that are either partially or entirely confined to within its boundaries. The only endemic genus is Pithecophaga, which is exclusive to the Philippine archipelago.