Notes Introduction 1 . J o h n D o w e r , War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon, 1986 ); Gerald Horne, Race War: White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire (New York: New York University Press, 2004 ); Geoff Swain, Between Stalin and Hitler: Class War and Race War on the Dvina, 1940–46 (London: Routledge, 2004); Ronald Takaki, Double Victory: A Multicultural History of America in World War II (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 2000). 2 . A sample of those works include: Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1911 ); Melville Herskovits, The Anthropometry of the American Negro (New York: Columbia University, 1930); Acculturation: The Study of Culture Contact (New York: J. J. Augustin, 1938 ); Otto Klineberg, Race Differences (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1935 ); Ruth Benedict, Patterns of Culture (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1934); Race, Science and Politics (New York: Modern Age Books, 1940 ); Robert Lowie, Culture and Ethnology (New York: P. Smith, 1929). 3 . D a n i e l K r y d e r , Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Garth E. Pauley, The Modern Presidency and Civil Rights: Rhetoric on Race from Roosevelt to Nixon (College Station: Texas A & M University Press, 2001); Lauren Rebecca Sklaroff, “Constructing G.I. Joe Louis: Cultural Solutions to the ‘Negro Problem’ during World War II,” The Journal of American History 89, 3 (December 2002): 958–983. 4 . Akira Iriye outlines these developments in “Culture and International History,” in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations , 2nd ed., eds. Michael Hogan and Thomas Paterson (New York: Columbia University Press, 2004): 241–256. Examples of this work includes: Thomas Borstelman, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Mary Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000 ); Penny Von Eschen, Race against Empire: Black Americans and Anticolonialism, 1937–57 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1997 ); Michael Krenn, Black 174 NOTES Diplomacy: African Americans and the State Department, 1945–69 (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1998); Deepa Mary Ollapally, Confronting Conflict: Domestic Factors and U.S. Policymaking in the Third World (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993); Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: Black Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996 ). 5 . Gerald Horne, “Race to Insight: The United States and the World, White Supremacy and Foreign Affairs,” in Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations , 323–335. 6 . On US cultural diplomacy in the twentieth century, please see: Liping Bu, Making the World Like US: Education, Cultural Expansion, and the American Century (London: Praeger, 2003); Richard Arnot, The First Resort of Kings: American Cultural Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century (Washington, DC: Potomac Books, 2005); Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000); Frank Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938–1950 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Penny Von Eschen, Satchmo Blows up the World: Jazz Ambassadors Play the Cold War (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006); Naima Prevots, Dance for Export: Cultural Diplomacy and the Cold War (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1999); Alexander Stephan, The Americanization of Europe: Culture, Diplomacy, and Anti-Americanism after 1945 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008); Jessica C. E. Gienon-Hecht, Transmission Impossible: American Journalism as Cultural Diplomacy in Postwar Germany, 1945–1955 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1999); Andrew Justin Falk, Upstaging the Cold War: American Dissent and Cultural Diplomacy, 1940–1960 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2010); Alusine Jalloh and Toyin Falola, eds., The United States and West Africa: Interactions and Relations (Rochester: Rochester University Press, 2008); Ellen Wu, “‘America’s Chinese’: Anti-Communism, Citizenship, and Cultural Diplomacy during the Cold War,” Pacific Historical Review 77, 3 (August 2008): 391–422. 7 . A k i r a I r i y e , Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press), 4. 8 . A sample of works on modernization include: Christian G. Appy, ed., Cold War Constructions: The Political Culture of U.S. Imperialism, 1945– 1966 (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2000); Mark T. Berger, The Battle for Asia: From Decolonization to Globalization (London: Routledge, 2004 ); David Newsom, The Imperial Mantle: The United States, Decolonization, and the Third World (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2001 ); Kimber Charles Pearce, Rostow, Kennedy, and the Rhetoric of Foreign Aid (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2001 ); Tony Smith, Foreign Attachments: The Power of Ethnic Groups in the Making of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000 ); Jan Nederveen Pieterse, Development Theory: Deconstructions/Reconstructions NOTES 175 (London: Sage, 2001); Michael Latham, Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000 ). 9 . E d w a r d C a u d i l l , Darwinian Myths: The Legends and Misuses of a Theory (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1997); Allen Chase, The Legacy of Malthus: The Social Costs of the New Scientific Racism (New York: Knopf, 1977); Saul Dubow, Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995 ); Mark Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian Attitudes in American Thought (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1963 ); Daniel Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985 ); Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Genetics and American Society: A Historical Appraisal (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972 ); Marshall Sahlins, The Use and Abuse of Biology (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1976); Stefan Kuhl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Geoffrey Russell Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain, 1900–1914 (Leyden: Noordoff International Publishing, 1976); Nancy Stepan, The Hour of Eugenics: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991). Lee Baker, From Savage to Negro: Anthropology and the Construction of Race, 1896–1954 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998); Regna Darnell, Along Came Boas: Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology (Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, 1998); Invisible Genealogies: A History of Americanist Anthropology (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001); George Stocking, Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968 ); Stocking, ed., The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883–1911 (New York: Basic Books, 1974); Vernon J. Williams, Rethinking Race: Franz Boas and His Contemporaries (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1996 ). 10. Published the year of Boas’s death, Ashley Montagu’s Man’s Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (New York: Columbia University Press, 1942) is considered the culminating work of Boasian anti-racism to appear before the international codification of anti-racism under the auspices of the United Nations and UNESCO. 1 1 . B a k e r , From Savage to Negro; Michael Banton, The International Politics of Race (Cambridge: Polity, 2002); Elazar Barkan, The Retreat of Scientific Racism: Changing Conceptions of Race in Britain and the United States between the World Wars (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Joseph L. Graves Jr., The Emperor’s New Clothes: Biological Theories of Race at the Millennium (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2001); Thomas C. Patterson, A Social History of Anthropology in the United States (New York: Berg, 2001); Pat Shipman, The Evolution of Racism: Human Differences and the Use and Abuse of Science (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002); Nancy Stepan, The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800–1960 (London: Macmillan, 1982). 176 NOTES 1 2 . J e n n y R e a r d o n , Race to the Finish: Identity and Governance in an Age of Genomics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 24. 1 3 . V o n E s c h e n , Race against Empire, 8. 1 4 . A u d r e y S m e d l e y , Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview (Boulder & Oxford: Westview Press, 1999 )., 6–7. 1 5 . G a t e s , “ T a l k i n ’ T h a t T a l k , ” i n “Race,” Writing, and Difference , Henry Louis Gates, ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988 ): 402. Mary Louis Pratt described the efforts of the collected essays as a project that sought to “destabilize fixed, naturalized meaning systems around race and other lines of hierarchical differentiation.” Pratt, “A Reply to Harold Fromm,” in“Race,” Writing, and Difference , 401. 16 . Marilyn Halter, Shopping for Identity: The Marketing of Ethnicity (New York: Schocken Books, 2000 ). 17 . Herbert Aptheker, “Anti-Racism in the United States: 1865–1900,” in Racism and Anti-Racism in World Perspective , Benjamin Bowser, ed. (London: Sage, 1995 ): 78. Also see Aptheker, Anti-Racism in U.S. History (Westport,