LEXICAL ITEMS IN ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES: A BRIDGE MODEL FOR VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION IN ENGLISH FOR GENERAL PURPOSES By Sammy Quinones Dolba Supervised by Prof. Salvatore Fava Ph.D. A DISSERTATION Presented to the Department of Literacy Education program at Selinus University Faculty of Arts & Humanities in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Literacy Education 2021 1 Table of Contents ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................ 4 CHAPTER I................................................................................................................................................ 7 THE PROBLEM AND LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................... 7 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 7 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................................... 10 RESEARCH PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................... 13 LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................................................. 14 DEFINITION OF TERMS .................................................................................................................. 15 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.......................................................................................................... 15 .......................................................................................................................................................... 21 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE ......................................................................................... 28 CHAPTER II ............................................................................................................................................ 81 METHODS .......................................................................................................................................... 81 RESEARCH DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 81 How to Choose Books for Analysis ................................................................................................ 82 SAMPLING ..................................................................................................................................... 84 Materials for Use ........................................................................................................................... 84 INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 85 DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE .................................................................................................... 85 DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................. 88 THE BRIDGE MODEL ...................................................................................................................... 88 CHAPTER III ........................................................................................................................................... 92 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION................................................................................................................ 92 Problem 1. The lexical items found across the following disciplines: Hospitality Management, Criminology, Tourism, Marine Engineering, and Information Technology ................................... 92 Problem 2. The comparison of ESP lexical items based on the following skills: basic vocabulary, multiple-meaning vocabulary, and context-specific vocabulary ................................................ 100 Problem 3. The bridge model for vocabulary instructions in English for General Purposes ..... 111 CHAPTER IV ......................................................................................................................................... 126 SUMMARY, CONLCUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................ 126 SUMMARY OF THE RESULTS ....................................................................................................... 126 Problem 2. The comparison of ESP lexical items based on the following skills: basic vocabulary, multiple-meaning vocabulary, and context-specific vocabulary: ............................................... 127 2 Problem 3. A proposed bridge model for vocabulary instructions in English for General Purposes based on the findings of the study: ............................................................................................ 128 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................................................. 128 RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................................................................. 129 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................ 132 INDEX .................................................................................................................................................. 222 3 ABSTRACT English courses consist of General English (GE) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP). While GE is designed for students to further develop their ability to use English as a communicative tool. ESP is contrived to train their ability to read and write what is technologically oriented. Considering that English is most likely to be encountered in their professional career, setting the goal on emphasizing the rise of English as the international language of Science and Technology is a must. Thus, using professional journals instead of using general ‘texts’ as a term technical article is used. Although ‘semi-ESP’ courses were at present being taught, there was still a scarcity of materials for such English. There was, therefore, a great need to bridge instruction from GE to ESP. It is also a challenge, for most professionals, to align their language according to different professions. Communication can become crucial to them because they find it difficult to communicate. Regardless of the degree they have accomplished, using the language in either speaking or writing can still be a challenge to them. This is the reason why other still needs to hire other professional speakers to speak on their behalf. However, if they are well equipped with the knowledge, GE and ESP, then professionals would not get intimidated to speak in front of other professionals. The study aimed to analyze lexical items underpinned in the textbooks used in the current teaching of ESP and GE. Using content analysis, a systematic evaluation of texts to examine nuances to bridge the gap between quantitative and qualitative data. This was such of importance, however, difficult to study due to issues of interest and the frequency of lexical items in ESP, and GE textbooks. With that being said, the study was then resolved to gather data from existing ESP textbooks in NCR only. Based on the existing references found, there are: 13,713 lexical items in Hospitality Management, 17,561 in Criminology, 4576 in Tourism, 7167 in Marine Engineering, and 512 in Information Technology. Furthermore, the overall 4 percentage of ESP lexical items fell in Tier 2 (with multiple-meaning while the least was in Tier 3, specifically on context-specific vocabulary. The study is mainly focused on vocabulary, because the researcher believed that is a professional is knowledgeable enough of the vocabulary word; how it is define, its other definition, how it is used in a sentence, and how it is used in different situation; then there would probably no difference even when a professional use it in written or verbal language. According to The Princeton Review, top ten of the many courses that students usually take are: computer science, communications, government/ political science, business, economics, English language and literature, psychology, nursing, chemical engineering, and biology. These are based on reasons such as covering job prospects, alumni salaries, and popularity. These courses are said to guarantee job and/ or huge paycheck, requiring different skill set that uses the same English language in a different context, purpose, and goal. Furthermore, these also offer unique intellectual changes that will help students to develop skill set that are applicable for variety of professional positions. In line with the following reasons the researcher has decided to included five courses only: first, these three are the readily available materials found that best suits the interest of the students at present; second, based on studies, most students take these courses due to factors such salary, opportunities provided here and across countries, in trend and more 21st century skills based; third, is the fact that most of the said courses are specialized based, which is the primary concern of this study. Since English is being taken advantage just as a language and not as tool for understanding and communication, might as well highlight its value