SPANISH LANGUAGE USE AND LINGUISTIC ATTITUDES IN LAREDO, TEXAS BETWEEN 1860 AND 1930 A Dissertation by CONCEPCIÓN MARÍA HICKEY Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY May 2012 Major Subject: Hispanic Studies Spanish Language Use and Linguistic Attitudes in Laredo, Texas between 1860 and 1930 Copyright May 2012 Concepción María Hickey SPANISH LANGUAGE USE AND LINGUISTIC ATTITUDES IN LAREDO, TEXAS BETWEEN 1860 AND 1930 A Dissertation by CONCEPCIÓN MARÍA HICKEY Submitted to the Office of Graduate Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Approved by: Chair of Committee, María Irene Moyna Committee Members, Brian Imhoff Jerry Thompson Carlos Blanton José Pablo Villalobos Head of Department, Alberto Moreiras May 2012 Major Subject: Hispanic Studies iii ABSTRACT Spanish Language Use and Linguistic Attitudes in Laredo, Texas between 1860 and 1930. (May 2012) Concepción María Hickey, B.A., Our Lady of the Lake University; M.A., Texas A&M University Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. María Irene Moyna This qualitative study investigated Spanish language use and linguistic attitudes in Laredo, Texas and the surrounding area from 1860 to 1930. In the public domain, sources include the Spanish and English language newspapers and Webb County Court documents. These were analyzed for evidence of the impact of English language contact and prevailing attitudes towards the use of Spanish from both the Hispanic and Anglo perspective. In the private domain, three major collections of private correspondence as well as other miscellaneous correspondence and records were transcribed and analyzed for evidence of metalinguistic or other attitudes towards Spanish. A linguistic analysis of the orthographic, phonological, morphosyntactic, and pragmatic features of Spanish used in the correspondence was also conducted. The major collections of correspondence and other private papers include: 1) the John Z. Leyendecker collection, 2) letters from the Clemente and Federico Idar Family Papers, and 3) the Miguel San Miguel Jr. private collection. The multiple authors in iv these collections come from low to middle income families and from varied educational and linguistic backgrounds, thus providing a broad socio-economic linguistic sample. Findings include a strong support for Spanish language use and teaching/learning of the Spanish language as well as varied levels of language confidence among bilingual and aspiring second language learners. Negative attitudes regarding class and lack of education rather than ethnicity were clearly held by some writers. Additionally, mixed attitudes about the strong presence of the Mexican culture in Laredo were found. The linguistic analysis found little evidence of English impact during the 1860s, but growing evidence of its influence during the early 20th century. Most prevalent were the use of English loan words, nativized loan words, and nonce borrowings. Some evidence of language shift was noted in the younger writers of the twentieth century. A few of the more salient Spanish linguistic features found include the use of the synthetic future verb form, minimal confusion between ser and estar, metathesis, apocope, vowel raising and lowering, and archaic expressions. v DEDICATION To my loving husband, John F. Hickey, who generously and faithfully supported and encouraged me during this academic journey. To my children Michael Francis, Diana Lilia, and James Harvey and grandchildren, Matías, María Paz, Sebastián, Oliver, and Analilia, I dedicate this accounting of our Spanish language history in Laredo, Texas. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank, most deeply, my committee chair, Dr. María Irene Moyna, who inspired me to pursue this research topic and who patiently guided me through the whole process of my research and writing. Her unfailing support of my work, her meticulous review of my drafts which included many detailed comments and questions, and her expert guidance as a linguist contributed greatly to the completion of this research. It is to her that I owe the greatest debt. I consider her a mentor and friend, one who has enriched my intellectual life and taught me how to approach linguistic research. To my committee members, Drs. Brian Imhoff, Jerry Thompson, Carlos Blanton, and José P. Villalobos, my deepest appreciation for your support and your guidance. To Dr. Imhoff who taught me and guided me through the transcription process, I will be forever grateful. I also owe a debt of thanks to Dr. Jerry Thompson as well as Dr. Stanley Green, both historians at Texas A&M International University who generously guided me through the literature on Laredo’s history and their own scholarly work on this topic, which taught me about the rich and unique history of my hometown. Similarly, Dr. Carlos Blanton introduced me to the significant literature regarding South Texas history. I learned much from his recommended readings and used them extensively in my work. To Dr. José P. Villalobos, my sincere appreciation for serving on my committee, for encouraging me through my entire studies, and for his thorough and most helpful review of my dissertation. vii I especially wish to acknowledge Laredoan Irma Flores for her generosity in making available to me the collection of letters from Mr. Rafael San Miguel Sr. from Zapata, Texas. I also wish to acknowledge María Eugenia López who so graciously shared, for the purposes of this study, a letter written by her father, Guillermo Sandoval, to his mother. It added a very interesting dimension to the linguistic information of Laredoans from the turn of the century. To all the individuals who assisted me in my research at the University of Texas Briscoe Center for American History and the Benson Center of Latin American Studies, and at the Special Collections of Texas A&M International University, I extend my thanks. Special thanks are owed to my dear friend and colleague, Dr. Lisa Gardner Flores, for her support, friendship and scholarship. I am also deeply grateful to my family and to many colleagues and friends for their continuous support. Most especially I wish to acknowledge my husband, John, who shared his insights with me on diverse topics, was always there when I needed him, and encouraged me throughout my studies. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..............................................................................................vi TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................xi 1. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY OF LAREDO .....................................................1 1.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................1 1.2. History of Laredo ...................................................................................................4 1.2.1. 1755 –1810..................................................................................................4 1.2.2. 1810-1845..................................................................................................16 1.2.3. 1846-1880..................................................................................................23 1.2.4. 1881-1930...................................................................................................41 1.3. Summary ..............................................................................................................54 2. LITERATURE REVIEW: LANGUAGE CONTACT AND SOCIOHISTORICAL LINGUISTICS .................................................................................................................56 2.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................56 2.2. Definition of Terms in Language Contact ............................................................57 2.3. Social Factors in Language Contact.....................................................................60 2.4. Social Factors and Spanish-English Contact in the Southwest............................69 2.5. Structural Factors in Language Contact and Code-switching..............................77 2.6. Historical Studies of English-Spanish Language Contact in the Southwest........82 2.7. Language Ideologies ............................................................................................89 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY................................................................................91 3.1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................91 3.2. Data Sources.........................................................................................................92 3.2.1. Direct Sources: Personal Correspondence ...............................................93 3.2.2. Direct Sources: Webb County Court Records........................................103 3.2.3. Indirect Sources: U.S. Federal Census Records......................................104