ETHNICITY, RELIGION, AND THE STATE: INTERMARRIAGE BETWEEN THE HAN AND MUSLIM HUI IN EASTERN CHINA By ZHONGZHOU CUI A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2015 © 2015 Zhongzhou Cui To my Parents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS When I put the finishing touches on this dissertation and turned off my computer, thousands of powerful feelings welled up from inside. But I simply could not find the words to express them. For the past nine years, I have been the beneficiary of incredibly generous help from many people in many places. I first thank my parents who, as traditional and semi-literate Chinese farmers in a rural area, hid from me their myriad misgivings about my departure. Who could predict whether I would be able to obtain a doctoral degree and bring honor to our family and our ancestors? They have tolerated an incredibly prolonged separation. Now it is time to go home. Secondly, I am profoundly grateful to my mentor, my committee chair, Dr. Chuan- kang Shih. Without hundreds of hours of give-and-take discussions in which he shared his advice, it would have been impossible to identify this marvelous dissertation topic or to design the beautiful outline to logically capture it on paper. My one regret is that my limited ability— in terms of language capacity, logical thinking, and academic writing— prevents me from reaching in these pages the level of thinking and writing that characterizes the work of Dr. Shih. All imperfections in these pages are my responsibility. I am deeply grateful for his skillful guidance during the past years. Next, I owe particular thanks to Dr. Gerald Murray, one of the best professors I have ever had in my academic career. From fine tuning the dissertation topic, to the conduct of fieldwork, the task of dissertation writing, and words of psychological wisdom during moments of discouragement, he provided me much needed help devoid of personal criticism. He treated all students equally and kindly. He has always 4 encouraged me and on several occasions has bolstered my tottering self-esteem. I walked away from each of our conversations filled with positive energy. My other committee members, Dr. Abdoulaye Kane and Dr. Victor Harris, offered me numerous insightful suggestions concerning my dissertation writing. Without their help, this dissertation would not have taken on its present form. Additionally, I wish to thank Dr. John Moore and Dr. Gwendolyn Simmons who kindly agreed to serve on my committee in the beginning of my studies at UF. With their help, I obtained a Master’s degree from UF and was able to continue on to doctoral studies. Other professors in the Anthropology Department at UF, such as Drs. Susan deFrance, Peter Collins, Russell Bernard, Brenda Chalfin, and Anita Spring, also gave me much needed help at different times. No words can adequately express my gratitude to them all. The Anthropology Department’s staff members, -- Karen Jones, Juanita Bagnall, Pamela Freeman, and Patricia King -- are without question the best support team that any student could hope to have. It is hard to imagine that only four people can run such a huge department and give such high quality service to all faculty and students. I also wish to thank the Graduate School at UF for granting me a dissertation award that freed me from tuition, other costs, and other tasks. With this much needed help, I was able to concentrate on my dissertation writing and bring it to completion. My deepest gratitude of course goes to my informants, my contacts in the field, who opened their homes and shared with me their insight into the Hui of Bozhou. Among these are the married couples Wang Yuntao and Qiang Jing, Guo Liang and Chen Yan, Wang Yuling and Hong, Imams Bai Xiangqi and Yang Yan, and individuals 5 such as Suo Jinghu, Jiang Shaoliang, Meng Zhaopeng, Mo San, Li Qiang, Wang Huiliang, Luo Cui, Zhou Xiao, and dozens of others. Without their help and cooperation and logistical support, my research would not have gone so smoothly. As is common practice, out of respect for their privacy I have disguised their names in the pages that follow. My gratitude goes also to my colleagues at UF. Xing Haiyan, Jiao Yang, Liu Meng, Zhao Hanchao, and Professor Wu Zongyou offered me constant support during my PhD studies and during the write-up of my dissertation. Thank you so much, my friends. And finally the person to whom I owe, and gladly give, my deepest gratitude is my wife, Liu Haiyan. More than twenty years of selfless soul support create a bond and a debt that is simply beyond any human words. Without her, this research would never have come to fruition. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. 4 LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... 12 LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ 13 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................... 14 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................... 15 CHAPTERS 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 17 Research Problem .................................................................................................. 17 Statement of Research Problem ...................................................................... 17 Background of the Hui and the City of Bozhou ................................................. 19 Marriage and Intermarriage of the Muslim Hui ................................................. 24 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 28 Historical and ethnographic accounts about the Hui in Bozhou ........................ 28 Theoretical Frameworks of Ethnicity ................................................................ 32 Ethnic Identity vs. Ethnic Identification ............................................................. 36 Intermarriage: Theories and Practice ............................................................... 41 Two Controversial Patterns .............................................................................. 45 The Impact of Secularization on Religion ......................................................... 48 Methodology ........................................................................................................... 49 Outline of the Chapters ........................................................................................... 57 2 THE HUI AND HAN IN BOZHOU............................................................................ 63 Ethnic and Religious Landscapes of Bozhou .......................................................... 63 Field Site .......................................................................................................... 63 Ethnic Groups ................................................................................................... 66 Diversity of Religions ........................................................................................ 68 The Hui in Bozhou .................................................................................................. 77 Ethnic Relationship between the Hui and the Han .................................................. 80 Emergence of the Muslim Hui—the First Two Stages ...................................... 81 Relationship between the Hui and the Han during the Qing Dynasty (1644- 1911) ............................................................................................................. 84 Fifth Stage: Cooperation and Confrontation ..................................................... 91 Relationship of the two ethnic groups in Bozhou .................................................... 94 Before the anti-rightist campaign ...................................................................... 95 From the anti-rightist campaign to the Cultural Revolution ............................... 96 After the Cultural Revolution ............................................................................. 98 7 Shihe Town event in Oct. 21-22, 1990 ....................................................... 99 An event on August 30, 1992 ................................................................... 100 An event in Guantang in 1996.................................................................. 102 Ethnic Relationships in Bozhou ...................................................................... 104 Economic change and increased social mobility ...................................... 105 Growth of ethno-religious awareness and underground powers .............. 106 Governmental strategies for dealing with the Hui and their underworld powers .................................................................................................. 108 Summary of the section .................................................................................. 110 3 INTERMARRIAGE BETWEEN THE MUSLIM HUI AND HAN: AN OVERVIEW ... 114 Marriage and Intermarriage in Islam (Shariah) ..................................................... 114 What is an Islamic Marriage? ........................................................................