University of Massachusetts Amherst ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst Open Access Dissertations 9-2010 Africanizing the Territory: The History, Memory and Contemporary Imagination of Black Frontier Settlements in the Oklahoma Territory Catherine Lynn Adams University of Massachusetts Amherst, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.umass.edu/open_access_dissertations Part of the African American Studies Commons Recommended Citation Adams, Catherine Lynn, "Africanizing the Territory: The History, Memory and Contemporary Imagination of Black Frontier Settlements in the Oklahoma Territory" (2010). Open Access Dissertations. 263. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/open_access_dissertations/263 This Open Access Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst. For more information, please contact [email protected]. AFRICANIZING THE TERRITORY: THE HISTORY, MEMORY AND CONTEMPORARY IMAGINATION OF BLACK FRONTIER SETTLEMENTS IN THE OKLAHOMA TERRITORY A Dissertation Presented by CATHERINE LYNN ADAMS Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Massachusetts Amherst in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY SEPTEMBER 2010 DEPARTMENT OF AFRO-AMERICAN STUDIES © Copyright by Catherine Lynn Adams 2010 All Rights Reserved AFRICANIZING THE TERRITORY: THE HISTORY, MEMORY AND CONTEMPORARY IMAGINATION OF BLACK FRONTIER SETTLEMENTS IN THE OKLAHOMA TERRITORY A Dissertation Presented by CATHERINE LYNN ADAMS Approved as to the style and content by: Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Chair James Smethurst, Member Steven C. Tracy, Member John Higginson, Member Amilcar Shabazz, Chair Department of Afro-American Studies DEDICATION For my loving mother, my storytelling grandmother and my history-teaching father ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, a Master Teacher, for his thoughtful, patient guidance and nurturing. Thanks are also due to Robert Paul Wolff for all of his support and encouragement before and after his retirement. I would also like to extend my gratitude to Yemisi Jimoh and the members of my committee, James Smethurst, Steven C. Tracy and John Higginson, for their scholarly contributions and willingness to serve. Last, but not least, a special thank you to all of the family and friends-who-are- like-family in Philadelphia, Western Massachusetts, Eastern North Carolina and beyond whose love, prayers, support, and friendship sustained me throughout this project and who provided me with gentle (and at times not-so-gentle) nudges to continue when I needed it most. v ABSTRACT AFRICANIZING THE TERRITORY: THE HISTORY, MEMORY AND CONTEMPORARY IMAGINATION OF BLACK FRONTIER SETTLEMENTS IN THE OKLAHOMA TERRITORY SEPTEMBER 2010 CATHERINE LYNN ADAMS, B.A., JOHNSON C. SMITH UNIVERSITY M.A. TEMPLE UNIVERSITY Ph.D., UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS AMHERST Directed by: Professor Ekwueme Michael Thelwell This dissertation articulates the ways in which black (e)migration to the territorial frontier challenges the master frontier narratives as well as African American migration narratives, and to capture how black frontier settlers and settlements are represented in three contemporary novels. I explore through the lens of cultural geography the racialized landscapes of the real and symbolic American South and the real, symbolic and imaginary black territorial frontier. Borrowing perspectives from cultural and critical race studies, I aim to show the theoretical and practical significance of contemporary literary representations of an almost forgotten historical past. Chapter I traces the sites of history, memory and imagination in migration and frontier narratives of enslaved and newly freed black people in the Oklahoma Territory. Chapter II addresses an oppositional narrative of masculinity in frontier narratives vi depicted in Guy Johnson‘s Standing at the Scratch Line. Chapter III examines how the black frontier landscape can be created and recreated across three generations who endure racial threats, violence and the razing of Greenwood during the Tulsa Riot of 1921 in Jewell Parker Rhodes‘s Magic City. Chapter IV scrutinizes the construction of black frontier subjects and exclusive black communities in Toni Morrison‘s Paradise. My dissertation seeks to add to and expand the literary studies of migration and frontier narratives, taking into account two popular novels alongside a more academically recognized novel. The selected novels mobilize very different resources, but collectively offer insights into black frontier identities and settlements as sites of a past, present and future African American collective consciousness. KEYWORDS: migration, frontier, cultural landscapes, collective consciousness vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. v ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 II. ―WHERE IN THIS LAND CAN A BLACK MAN GO AND BE FREE?‖: BLACK MASCULINITY ON THE FRONTIER IN GUY JOHNSON‘S STANDING AT THE SCRATCH LINE .................................................................. 30 III. ―A LANDSCAPE BIG ENOUGH TO HOLD DREAMS‖: GREENWOOD BEFORE, DURING AND AFTER THE RIOT OF 1921 IN JEWELL PARKER RHODES‘S MAGIC CITY..................................................................... 58 IV. ―COME PREPARED OR NOT AT ALL‖: RACE, GENDER AND ISOLATION IN TONI MORRISON‘S PARADISE .............................................. 79 V. CONCLUSION ..................................................................................................... 114 APPENDIX: ARTICLES, ESSAYS AND BOOKS ON PARADISE ............................ 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 130 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The title of this dissertation, ―Africanizing the Territory: The History, Memory and Contemporary Imagination of Black Frontier Settlements in the Oklahoma Territory,‖ indicates the goal of my study: to articulate the ways in which black (e)migration to the territorial frontier challenges the master frontier narratives as well as African-American migration narratives, and in so doing illustrate how the history and memory of black frontier settlers and settlements are represented in contemporary African American novels.1 I focus on the formation of black frontier communities and characters forged by self-segregation and racial exclusion. In addition, I explore through the lens of cultural geography how narratives produce identities by constructing symbolic and imagined racialized landscapes of the American South and the territorial frontier. Using perspectives provided by cultural and critical race studies, I intend to examine the theoretical and practical significance of contemporary literary representations of an almost forgotten historical past.2 1 Throughout this study, I use the terms ―emigrants‖ and ―emigration‖ to address people and events related to occurrences in the Indian and Oklahoma Territories during the nineteenth century and first few years of the twentieth century. Similarly, I use ―migrants‖ and ―migration‖ to address people and events related to occurrences after statehood in 1907. 2 Throughout this study ―black‖ is the more commonly used word for the racial category of people of African descent in America—especially the descendants of people who were enslaved in the American South. However, I recognize, as do scholars of critical race theory, that ―race‖ is socially, politically, and even geographically constructed. 1 This introduction sets forth a theoretical framework by tracing the sites of history, memory and imagination in migration and frontier narratives of enslaved and newly freed black people in the Oklahoma Territory. Chapter Two, entitled, ―‗Where in this Land Can a Black Man Go and Be Free?‘: Masculinity in a Black Frontier Town in Guy Johnson‘s Standing at the Scratch Line,‖ interrogates the construction of black masculine subjectivity as a counter or oppositional narrative to the myth of the frontier used to justify power gained by way of racism. Chapter Three, entitled ―‗A Landscape Big Enough to Hold Dreams‘: Greenwood Before, During and After the Riot of 1921 in Jewell Parker Rhodes‘s Magic City,‖ examines how the black frontier landscape can be created and recreated across three generations all while enduring racial threats, violence and the razing of Greenwood. Finally, Chapter Four, entitled ―‗Come Prepared or Not at All‘: Race, Gender and Isolation in Toni Morrison‘s Paradise,‖ scrutinizes the construction of black frontier subjects and exclusive black communities along the territorial frontier. In this study, I call into question the traditional study of African American migration narratives, which has been preoccupied with black migrants in the geographical contexts of North and South, and the study of American and frontier literary narratives, which usually exclude black migrants and black communities. I assert that memory and history inform imagination resulting in fuller, more accessible stories of why some of the earliest black people traveled to the western