APPENDIX A MONGOLIA Appendix A Report on Reindeer Herding in Mongolia - Reindeer Herding a Doomed Culture? Photo © Elna Sara Introduction rounded by permanently snow-clad peaks of up to 3100 metres. Domesticated reindeer herding across At these outer limits of the reindeer´s natural habi- borders tat, the climate is fairly dry. Temperatures are conti- nental, with summer highs of up to +40°C and winter Domesticated reindeer herding in Mongolia takes temperatures down to -40°C. The sun rises high in the place along the borders of the Russian autonomous sky at these southern latitudes, and as often as not the republics of Tuva and Buryatia, on the south slopes sky is cloudless. During the six month summer period of the Sayan Mountains. The area is in Tsaagan Nuur this leads to extreme heat during the daytime, whilst suum (district), within the Khovsgol aimag (prov- the nights can be fairly cold, even at that time of the ince). year. There is a lot of rainfall in the area during July The areas used for herding reindeer lie between 51- and August, leading to lush grass growth and good 52 degrees north (the same latitude as Belgium). This conditions for grazing animals. As early as August lies right on the edge of the transition between taiga there may be night frosts, and ice may form on water and the steppe. In this particular area one can expe- pools and in streams. Snow falls during October, and rience something as unusual as reindeer and camels can reach a depth of 40-100 cm during the winter. grazing side by side. The snow is usually quite loose and porous, which The area is grass covered, leading to thinner offers no problems to grazing reindeer. In some years coniferous forest (taiga) and tree lined valleys, sur- there is still snow on the ground as late as July. 143 SUSTAINABLE REINDEER HUSBANDRY APPENDIX A MONGOLIA Traditional herding culture large animals. Their special breeding techniques are In Mongolia, the herding of domesticated reindeer is considered to be highly advanced, in relation to the done by an ethnic minority, the Dukha. The Dukha normal methods used in breeding reindeer. are a sub-group of the Todsjin-Tuva people that are reindeer herders in the Tuva Autonomous Republic in Russia. The Dukha/Todsjin-Tuva are thought to be a The history of reindeer herding in Mon- mix of Turkish, Mongolian and Samojed peoples, and golia their language is of Turkish origin. They are closely related to two other reindeer herding peoples, the Historical retrospect Sojot and the Tofalar. The Dukha/Todsjin-Tuva´s traditional herding The Dukha/Todsjin-Tuva´s herding areas have, areas are in the Sayan Mountains, specifically around throughout history, been of strategical interest to the the Bij-Kem and Ka-Kem areas, around the Jenisej dominant powers of China and Russia. Both Mongo- springs within the Tuva Autonomous Republic in lia and Tuva were subject to Chinese rule from 1732 Russia, and within the Khovsgul province in Mongo- until 1911–12, when they broke away and declared lia. Their herding traditions are believed to be ancient. their independence. The resulting political changes Some experts believe that the herding of domesticated that took place were later to have a direct influence reindeer first began in the Sayan mountains, several on the Dukha/Todsjin-Tuva´s traditional use of their thousand years ago. The oldest written reference to own areas. domesticated reindeer is to be found in these areas, The border between Mongolia ad Tuva was for- recorded by a Chinese monk in 499 A.D. mally declared in 1926/1927. This border divided The extent of the Dukha/Todsjin-Tuva´s domes- their herding areas into two. When Tuva subsequently tication of reindeer in the past is unknown. From the became a part of the Soviet Union, this effectively information that is available, it seems that there were stopped the Dukha from transversing the border around 1000 people involved in reindeer herding in areas. the late 1800s and early 1900s. Today there are around The Dukha remained in Mongolia at the out- 400 Dukha people in Mongolia, around 160-170 of break of the second World War. At the time they these are still involved in reindeer herding. were regarded almost as stateless, and attempts were The Dukha/Todsjin-Tuva still live a nomadic life- made to drive them out of the country. This situation style, and live in tents out on the taiga all year round. continued until 1956, until the Dukha were finally Their tents are exactly like the lavvo of the Sami and recognised as Mongolian citizens. the Nenet tjume. The herders move around in a In Mongolia, most of the agriculture was in the defined pattern between seasonal grazing areas. This form of collectives, according to the system established movement is to some degree influenced by the hunt- in the Soviet Union. Reindeer herding became politi- ing conditions in the area. The whole family take part cally a part of agriculture, but was not regarded as an in the herding. independent industry. This may have been because of The type of herding is taiga-based, with small the limited extent of reindeer herding, and because herds. The production of meat is of secondary impor- hunting was the main way of life. Therefore no devel- tance. However, reindeer herding is the central ele- opment plans were implemented for reindeer herding. ment in their culture. Reindeer play a key role in their In place of this, a fishing collective was established subsistence, which is based on hunting for food and with a base at Tsaagan Nuur, in order to ensure a live- for skins. Without reindeer it would be impossible lihood for the Dukha. Many of the Dukha gave up to exploit these resources effectively. The reindeer the nomadic way of life and sought work at the fishing are necessary for transport, and are a food source (the collective. Many of the local poulation also joined the reindeer are milked daily), and are also a reserve in case collective, which became a vital part of Mongolia´s of natural fluctuations in game stocks. somewhat limited fishing industry. The and their neighbours, the Sojots and Tofalar, In 1972 the fishing collective was extended to use the reindeer for riding and as pack animals. The include hunting. The nomadic reindeer herders joined type of reindeer (Woodland Reindeer) are large and the collective as hunters. This had both positive and strong, and well suited to the task. The Dukha/ negative aspects: On the one side the domesticated Todsjin-Tuva people are well-known for breeding reindeer herders were secured an income and other 144 145 SUSTAINABLE REINDEER HUSBANDRY APPENDIX A MONGOLIA Photo © Elna Sara economic benefits from the collective. However, rein- the fishing collective, now went over to the hunting deer herding was subjected to an administration that and reindeer herding collective and became nomads did not always act in it´s best interests. once more. Shortly after this, in 1992, this collective The commercialisation of reindeer herding began was also on the edge of bankruptcy. There were no in 1979. The collective began to harvest velvet, which more funds to pay the worker´s wages. Therefore, a was sold to the Chinese market. This was the first step decision was made to allow the nomad families to take towards changing the perception of the industry. over the reindeer flocks on a lease basis. These were In 1985 the status of reindeer herding changed, also allowed to run private businesses. This led to even after the establishment of a new hunting and reindeer more Dukha returning to reindeer herding, which herding collective at Tsaaagan Nuur. The aim of the naturally increased the strain on the industry. collective was to secure the future of reindeer herding. The number of reindeer had sunk to 670 animals. After this time, great efforts were made to establish Dawn of a new era reindeer herding as an industry. A much needed Domesticated reindeer herding became 100% priva- regular veterinary service was provided. Reindeer were tised in 1995. That year, the state-owned ”Tsaagan imported from Tuva (in 1986) in order to strengthen Nuur hunting and reindeer herding collective” was the breeding stock, which was considered to have been closed down. All the reindeer formerly owned by the weakened by the small numbers of animals kept over a collective were distributed among the nomad families. long period. All these efforts led to the rapid revitalisa- The total number of reindeer at that time was approxi- tion of reindeer herding. Reindeer numbers increased, mately 900 animals. and reached approximately. 1200 animals in 1990. The country was in the middle of a deep economic 1990 marked the start of a period of change that depression, and this naturally also greatly affected the would bring reindeer herding back to it´s original reindeer herders. The change in numbers of reindeer starting point. In that year the fishing collective was during the following years shows that the situation closed down, due to the over-exploitation of the fish was critical for the herders. The mumber of animals resources. This coincided with a slump in the national fell by a third, to around 620 animals in 1998. At economy. Many of those who had formerly worked in that time around 30-40 families remained active in the 144 145 SUSTAINABLE REINDEER HUSBANDRY APPENDIX A MONGOLIA industry. Exactly how many were involved before thiss Zuun taiga (east taiga) lies to the north of Shishket. is not known.