In Service of God and King: Conflicts between Bourbon Reformers and the Missionaries of Santa Rosa de Ocopa in Peru, 1709-1824 DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Cameron David Jones Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2013 Dissertation Committee: Stephanie J. Smith, Advisor Kenneth J. Andrien, Co-advisor Donna J. Guy Copyright by Cameron David Jones 2013 Abstract This dissertation examines the evolving political, economic, and philosophical conflicts between the Franciscan missionaries based out of the College of Santa Rosa de Ocopa in Peru and the Spanish State between 1709 and 1824. The conflicts facing Ocopa were representative of a major pattern of clerical reform influenced by a new philosophy of regalism, which, inspired by the European Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason over tradition, aimed to centralize political power in the monarchical state. The Ocopa missionaries were not completely subservient agents of the government sent to exploit local labor forces to extract resources for Spain. Rather, they sought to create a spiritual utopia, as they imagined it, using State funds but being free from the Crown’s political agenda. Although Spanish regalists were pious Catholics, they sought to create a more national Church under Crown control, which involved curtailing the autonomy of religious orders like the Franciscans. The resulting tensions allowed Amerindian communities concentrated in the Ocopa missions to resist the missionaries’ cultural, political, and commercial impositions. What occurred in the missions, therefore, was a result of interactions among Franciscan missionaries, Crown officials, and indigenous peoples—each with its own discrete agenda. Untangling these competing agendas will help to reveal the dynamics of Spanish colonial aspirations along this crucial frontier zone in Peru during the Bourbon period (1700-1824). ii To Carrie, Claire, and Suzy iii Acknowledgments First I would like to acknowledge and thank all the various organizations who during the seven years I have worked on this project have helped to fund my research. The U.S. Department of Education (through the Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Program), the Academy of American Franciscan History, the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, the Tinker Foundation, the Office of International Affairs (OIA) at the Ohio State University (OSU), and the OSU Department of History all helped me arrive at the various far-flung archives I had to visit as well as not letting me starve in the process. I would especially like to thank Joanna Kikielka-Blaser at the OIA who guided my through perils of the Fulbright-Hays experience. During my time abroad I encounter many scholars who advised and help me get around Spain and Peru. In Spain Luis Miguel Glave and José Hernández Palomo served as my guides and gave me invaluable advice. In Peru I would have been lost without the help of professors Claudia Rosas, Margarita Suárez, and José de la Puente. I am particularly grateful to Father Jorge Cajo, O.F.M., who as the current guardian of Ocopa gave me unprecedented access to the monastery and its records. Two institutions so graciously allowed me to affiliate with them, the Escuela de Estudios Hispano- Americanos in Seville, Spain and the Pontificia Universidad Católico del Perú in Lima. iv Also I would like to thank my fellow traveling graduate students Elizabeth Montañez and Javier Puente, who helped me to navigate the intricacies of academia abroad. At OSU several graduate students have given me invaluable feedback and moral support during this project: Danielle Anthony, Spencer Tyce, Beau Brammer, James Weeks, Jessica Wallace, Melissah Pawlikowski, Daniel Watkins, Joseph Wachtel, Daniel Vandersommers, and Frank Blazich. I would especially like to thank Steven Hyland, my academic big brother and sounding board for all my crazy ideas, as well as James Bach, the graduate studies coordinator and the other person who listened to my insanities. Many professors during my graduate program have helped to make this dissertation a reality. Alan Gallay not only served on my doctoral candidacy committee but was an outside voice of reason in the formation of this project. Joseph Miller who during his short time here and throughout our correspondences has helped me to shape this project in ways that I did not think possible. Geoffrey Parker not only has served as my teacher of both the science and art of writing history, but has been a consummate mentor and friend. Donna Guy provided sage advice and gentle prodding that pushed this project and me to strive to always be better. Stephanie Smith, who has guided me throughout my graduate career, but especially this last, difficult year, has made me be a more careful and conscientious teacher and scholar. Finally, I am grateful to Kenneth Andrien, who advised me during these seven long years. I cannot thank him enough for his wisdom and reassurance during my entire graduate experience. This dissertation is as much a product of his skillful advising as it is my own hard work. v Last, I owe a deep debt of gratitude to my family. My parents Ernest and Julie Jones provided a loving home where learning and the thirst for knowledge were always highly prized. I am grateful to my siblings Alison Sweetnam, Matthew Jones, Timothy Jones, Melinda Kunz, and Christian Jones, who put up with their annoying little brother. Finally, I dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Carrie, and my two beautiful daughters, Claire and Suzy. My daughters with their joy and love for life inspire me every day. And Carrie who stood by side during the long ordeal of graduate school, learned a new language, and lived (and even had a baby) in foreign lands. I cannot begin to thank her. This doctorate is as much hers as it is mine. vi Vita June 2000 ......................................................... San Luis Obispo High School 2006 .................................................................. B.A. History, Brigham Young University 2009 .................................................................. M.A. History, The Ohio State University 2006 to present ............................................... Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University Fields of Study Major Field: History vii Table of Contents Abstract .....................................................................................................................................ii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................... iv Vita ..........................................................................................................................................vii List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures........................................................................................................................... x Introduction.........................................................................................................................1 Chapter 1: The Birth of Ocopa…………………………………………………………..16 Chapter 2: Rebellion, Religion, and Regalism…………………………………………...70 Chapter 3: In the Aftermath of Rebellion………………………………………………125 Chapter 4: “In Service of Both Majesties”……………………………………………..169 Chapter 5: From Apogee to Collapse…………………………………………………..230 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...276 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………282 viii List of Tables Table 1 - Payment of annual stipend to the Ocopa missionaries 1724-1745 .................... 54 Table 2 – Payments to the Ocopa missionaries during Manso de Velasco’s term .......... 144 Table 3 - “Plan de los contribuciones anuales, y limosnas… en este Reino del Perú”. .. 174 Table 4 - Royal Treasure Payments to Ocopa 1762-1787 ................................................. 176 Table 5 - Peninsular missionaries who travelled to Ocopa, 1761-1787 ........................... 181 ix List of Figures Figure 1 – “Descripción Geografía de las Montaña de los Andes”. ................................... 22 Figure 2 - Population Change in Four Tarma Missions, 1722-1739 .................................. 63 Figure 3 - Baptisms and Burials in Eneno, 1732-1742 . ...................................................... 64 Figure 4 - Baptisms in Pozuzu, 1736-1786. ......................................................................... 64 Figure 5 - Map of the Ocopa Missions ................................................................................. 83 Figure 6 - Lima con sus contornos ...................................................................................... 115 Figure 7- “Mapa de los Mártires de Santa Rosa de Ocopa” .............................................. 136 Figure 8 - Finances after the Earthquake/Tsunami of 1746. ............................................. 147 Figure 9 - Government Expenditures for the Rebuilding of Lima .................................... 149 Figure 10 - The College of Santa Rosa de Ocopa, 2011.................................................... 179 Figure 11 - Ocopa’s missionary zones in Peru. .................................................................. 187 Figure 12 - The Archipelago of Chiloé in respects to Lima and Ocopa. .......................... 194 Figure 13 – Ocopa’s Seals.