DESIGNING BEHAVIORAL SOLUTIONS TO REDUCE RESIDENTIAL ENERGY USE A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE EMMETT INTERDISCIPLINARY PROGRAM IN ENVIRONMENT AND RESOURCES AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY MARILYN CORNELIUS March 2013 © 2013 by Marilyn Praveena Cornelius. All Rights Reserved. Re-distributed by Stanford University under license with the author. This dissertation is online at: http://purl.stanford.edu/jd629dt7155 ii I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Thomas Robinson, Primary Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Nicole Ardoin, Co-Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Kathleen Armel Approved for the Stanford University Committee on Graduate Studies. Patricia J. Gumport, Vice Provost Graduate Education This signature page was generated electronically upon submission of this dissertation in electronic format. An original signed hard copy of the signature page is on file in University Archives. iii Abstract Energy use in the U.S. residential sector accounts for a substantial portion of the United States’ greenhouse gas emissions when considering residential buildings, personal transportation, and food. One opportunity to significantly lower this footprint is to focus on individual-level behavioral changes. To date, however, few climate- and energy- related behavioral interventions have been designed, implemented, rigorously evaluated, and reported in peer-reviewed literature. This dissertation begins to address that gap using an interdisciplinary, mixed-methods approach that targets different population segments with studies that aim to better understand and reduce energy use in homes. Three studies constitute this dissertation: (1) identification of options for sizable residential energy savings; (2) design, implementation and evaluation of a theory-based behavioral intervention to motivate reductions in residential energy use, and (3) investigation of the concept of “global identity,” which is hypothesized to be associated with change in energy use behaviors. The first study identifies viable energy-saving alternative behaviors from experts and historical and contemporary cultures to inform the increasing number of behavioral interventions being planned and developed. This project uses exploratory ethnographic and design methods to develop foundational insights on these issues from a user-centered perspective, specifically among adults. The project identifies over one hundred options, as well as distinct principles to guide energy reductions. The second study undertakes the design, implementation, and efficacy of a social cognitive theory-based, school-based intervention for adolescents in a public high school setting. Results of the randomized controlled trial indicate significant improvements in energy- and greenhouse gas emissions-related behaviors in students who received the intervention compared to controls. The third study examines the measurement characteristics of a global identity measure previously used in other domains and its relationship to energy- and greenhouse gas emissions-related behaviors in a subsample from the intervention study, finding global identity to be directly associated with those behaviors. Collectively, this work uncovers insights about home energy use and other greenhouse gas emissions-related behaviors and potential ways to change them, and will inform the design of future behavioral interventions. iv Acknowledgments First and foremost I thank Steve Schneider, my former mentor and advisor, for knowing me well enough to suggest I study behavior change, for being an unparalleled source of inspiration and support, and for being one of the best leaders and role models in the climate change field. It was a great honor to work with you and I’m privileged to now carry your torch, Steve. You are one of the best human beings I have ever known. I feel your guidance daily, and I am grateful. I am thankful to my committee for their patience and support as I grieved after Steve’s passing and lost sight for some time of my own determination. I am very fortunate to have worked with some of the best researchers in the world. I am grateful to Tom for his guidance, expert research and writing skills, and uncanny ability to reflect my own goals back to me when I was caught up in details. Nicole showed me kind, unwavering support and incredible intellectual strength, for which I am very grateful. I am in awe of Banny for his immensely innovative and visionary nature, for always inspiring me so much, and for understanding me on so many levels right from our very first meeting. Carrie, with whom I have worked most closely, was an amazing source of guidance, creativity, tenacity, patience, and excellence both personally and professionally, and I am grateful to her for all her support. I am indebted to Mike for stepping in graciously when I asked, and for being so helpful at all times, even when he was experiencing fatherhood as I approached my defense! I am grateful to several other faculty members for their guidance, including Josh Cohen, Ursula Heise, Monica McDermott, Debra Satz, Meg Caldwell, Len Ortolano, Bob Sutton, Debra Dunn, Nitzan Waisberg, and Jenna Davis. Special gratitude goes to Jim Sweeney for his ongoing wisdom, for chairing my defense, and for his support during difficult times. I am really thankful to Pam Matson for her advice when I was at a loss for how to proceed. I am indebted to Dr. Greene, my former employer, my mentor and one of my moms, who has been there for me like a rock for the past 15 years. I am grateful to Joe Kuwabara, Josie Sallaz, Sean McFarland, Gail Ortega, and Michael Schultz for their support and encouragement even before my PhD path began; they watered seeds of determination in me that are still growing. v I am indebted to Helen, Jen, Danielle and Noah at E-IPER for their tireless support. I also thank Suki for encouraging me to apply. Particular thanks go to Peter Vitousek for his guidance and support in my final year. Terry’s priceless academic and personal guidance is so precious to me, thank you Terry! To Steve’s team and my Stanford family; Patricia, Sarah, Katarina, and Kristin with whom I have shared sad and happy times, and celebrate milestones – thank you! I also thank June Flora, Catherine Vogel, Luke Morton, Reuben Deumling, and Larsen Plano for their generous assistance. I am grateful to my research assistants Kat, Tom, Lily, Trista, Carly, Brian, Dean, and Gracie for their hard work and the pleasure of learning with them and from them. I am indebted to Noah for a little bit of tutoring that went a long way. I am thankful to the d.school for offering some of the most inspiring classes I’ve ever taken. The Research as Design (RAD) team and my friends, Amanda, Nicola, Anja and Adam continue to give me a valuable opportunity to teach and learn together, for which I am grateful. I am so fortunate to have found through RAD my business partner, sister, and soul mate Zanette – thank you for being a kindred spirit, and a kind, beautiful, and gracious being with whom I can live my dreams! I am especially grateful to Kristen Honey, Andrew Peterman, Fran Moore, Mehana Vaughn, my committee, the social ecology lab, and the E-IPER community for helping me figure out how to frame my research in the final stages and for help with defense preparations. Very special thanks go to Heather, Rachelle and Jen, who orchestrated the smooth execution of my defense in more ways than I know. I would also like to thank E-IPER and the Stanford Interdisciplinary Graduate Fellowship (SIGF) for funding me, and the Precourt Energy Efficiency Center (PEEC) and Advanced Research Projects Agency – Energy (ARPA-E) for funding my research. As an international undergraduate student, I encountered several difficulties, including a coup in Fiji that led to restrictions on the amount of funds that could be sent to me, post 9/11 visa renewal issues and corrupt lawyers. Graduate school by comparison has been a dream, and I really appreciate that. vi To my amazing friends: my angel, Heather, for the incredible gift of connecting me with Steve and with E-IPER, and for continuing to be a beautiful lighthouse at every step of my journey; Rachelle for being a kindred spirit and a source of boundless support; Michael for academic and spiritual sharing through life’s unpredictability; Sailesh for inspiration and guidance in integrating science, activism, and spirituality; Kamal for being my vegan partner in crime through Operation Missing Link; Subhashni for her passion and for fighting the climate fight with me; Krishneel for being my oldest and best friend and for always loving me; Aunty and Asish for being supportive at all times; Shradha (Shel) for all her love and support, and for being my big sister; Edyta for being the single friend and soul mate I could rely on no matter what life was throwing at me, for taking me in and giving me space to heal and reinvent myself just five months before my defense, and for inspiring me with her own academic achievements; Kogucik, Maminka, and Chaya for being my wonderful family; Irene fui for her steady wisdom, humor, and encouragement; David kaka for his love and humor; Sashi (bhabiji) for being so supportive and making me laugh; Lynette, Chris, and Poji for being my family no matter the distance; Tash for being family and a sweet friend; teenie for being there for me in ways that no one else has or can; Nancy for helping me reflect and celebrate; Beth and Becca for being there when I was frustrated; and Deb for being a strong friend and powerful inspiration academically and personally.