The Changing Face of Co- governance in New Zealand – How are Ngāi Tahu and Ngāi Tūhoe promoting the interests of their people through power-sharing arrangements in resource management? A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Laws in the University of Canterbury by Rachael Caroline Harris University of Canterbury 2015 Table of Contents 1 Acknowledgments ...................................................................................... 10 2 Abstract ....................................................................................................... 11 3 Glossary ....................................................................................................... 12 4 Introduction and Methodology ................................................................ 19 4.1 Methodology .................................................................................... 19 5 Law and Policy Background..................................................................... 24 5.1 Governance and Co-Governance .................................................... 26 5.2 What is Co-governance? ................................................................. 29 5.3 Positives and Negatives of Co-governance and Co-management . 37 5.4 Resource Management in New Zealand ......................................... 43 5.5 Section 36 Joint Management Agreements .................................... 48 5.6 Section 33 Delegation of Functions ................................................ 52 5.7 Tikanga and Western Law............................................................... 57 5.8 Understanding Tikanga in a Modern Setting .................................. 61 5.9 Kaitiakitanga .................................................................................... 69 5 5.9.1 Kaitiakitanga – examples in legislation, case law and policy .. 74 5.9.2 Kaitiakitanga – examples in practice ........................................ 78 5.10 Legal Personality ............................................................................. 80 5.11 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 84 6 Ngāi Tahu and Resource Management Power Sharing Schemes ........ 86 6.1 Te Kerēme ....................................................................................... 89 6.2 Legal Personality for Ngāi Tahu ..................................................... 93 6.3 The Settlement – Environmental Management Provisions ............ 99 6.4 The Settlement – Commercial Provisions ....................................104 6.5 Te Waihora/Lake Ellesmere Co-governance Arrangement .........109 6.6 The Canterbury Water Management Strategy ..............................119 6.7 Freshwater governance – policy v practice...................................124 6.8 Ngāi Tahu and the Canterbury Rebuild ........................................127 6.8.1 The Background to the Ngāi Tahu role in the rebuild ...........127 6.8.2 Actual effect of the CER Act for Ngāi Tahu ..........................132 6.9 Ngāi Tahu and Canterbury in the Future ......................................143 6 6.10 Conclusion .....................................................................................148 7 Ngāi Tūhoe and resource management power sharing schemes .......152 7.1 Tūhoe and the Crown – Co-governance history ...........................156 7.2 The Tūhoe Treaty Settlement ........................................................169 7.2.1 Legal Personality for Te Urewera ...........................................170 7.2.2 Marine and Coastal Area (Takutai Moana) Act 2011 ............173 7.2.3 The Whanganui River .............................................................175 7.2.4 Christopher Stone’s ‘Should Trees Have Standing’ ..............180 7.2.5 Te Urewera ..............................................................................185 7.2.6 Prospects of the Te Urewera Governance Board ...................191 7.3 Response to the New Te Urewera Governance Arrangements ....199 7.4 Conclusion .....................................................................................204 8 Conclusions ...............................................................................................207 8.1 A Seat at The Table vs The Whole Table .....................................210 8.2 Legal Personality ...........................................................................220 8.3 Pitfalls of co-governance ...............................................................221 7 8.3.1 Capacity ...................................................................................222 8.3.2 Cost ..........................................................................................223 8.3.3 Aligning perspectives ..............................................................225 8.4 Co-governance in the future ..........................................................226 9 References .................................................................................................233 9.1 Cases ..............................................................................................233 9.2 Legislation .....................................................................................234 9.3 Treaties ...........................................................................................236 9.4 Books .............................................................................................236 9.5 Journal Articles ..............................................................................238 9.6 Parliamentary and Government Materials ....................................241 9.7 Reports ...........................................................................................244 9.8 Dissertations ..................................................................................246 9.9 Internet Resources .........................................................................246 9.10 Other Resources .............................................................................250 10 Appendix One: List of Interview Subjects .....................................254 8 List of Figures Figure 1: Co-management structures ................................................................. 33 Figure 2: A Māori view of the Natural and Physical Resources (Minhinnick, 1985) ...................................................................................................... 67 Figure 3: Pakeha view of Natural Resources (Minhinnick, 1985) ................... 68 Figure 4: Ngāi Tahu Rohe .................................................................................. 87 Figure 5: TRONT organisation structure.........................................................105 Figure 6: Ngāi Tūhoe area of interest (red line indicates traditional rohe). ...154 9 1 Acknowledgments I wish to express sincere appreciation to Dr John Hopkins and Natalie Baird for their exemplary supervision during this Masters project. In addition, I would like to offer special thanks to Dr Te Maire Tau who provided cultural guidance and support throughout the research. The Ngāi Tahu Research Centre, in particular Kirsty and Virginia, are gratefully acknowledged. I would also like to thank my patient family and friends for their continual support throughout the Masters process. This thesis is dedicated to all my grandparents, for inspiring eternal intellectual curiosity. 10 2 Abstract Power sharing regimes in resource management, including co-governance and co-management schemes, are now common across New Zealand. These schemes bring together iwi and the Crown to facilitate various environmental objectives. These arrangements often utilise the tenants of tikanga Māori, in particular the concept of kaitiakitanga, and are generally provided for outside of the Resource Management Act 1991. This thesis shows how two iwi, Ngāi Tahu of the South Island, and Ngāi Tūhoe of Te Urewera in the central North Island, are utilising such schemes to promote the interests of their people. It explains that Ngāi Tahu have built up co-governance in a patchwork manner, utilising the provisions of their settlement to build three distinct co- management arrangements in Canterbury. The thesis shows that Ngāi Tahu have yet to gain full co-governance capacity, but may well have a future role at the table in regional Canterbury governance from 2016 onwards. In comparison, Ngāi Tūhoe have been granted a different kind of governance arrangement that arguably goes beyond co-governance. This governance arrangement is based off the fact that legal personality has been granted to Te Urewera, and will allow Ngāi Tūhoe to promote the interests of their people in a unique way. The thesis will show that the face of co-governance is changing, and the future face of such arrangements may well give iwi more control. However, that there are pitfalls associated with such resource management power sharing schemes that must be taken into account when planning for future arrangements. 11 3 Glossary1 Anamata. Time to come, hereafter, futures. Aroha. Love, charity, generosity. Atua. Ancestor with continuing influence, god, demon, supernatural being, deity, ghost, object of superstitious regard, strange being. Hapū. Sub-tribe, clan grouping. Hui. Gathering. Meeting. Iwi. Tribe. Kai. Food. Kai Awa. Food from the river. Kai Ika. Food from fish. Kai Manu. Food from birds. Kai Moana. Food from the sea. 1 Definitions are sourced from www.maoridictionary.co.nz. 12 Kai Rakau. Food from