JAANA EIGI The Social Organisation of Science as a Question for Philosophy of Science University of Tartu 2016ŀ The dissertation has been accepted for defence of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Philosophy by the Council of the Institute of Philosophy and Semiotics, University of Tartu, on the 6 th of June 2016. Supervisor: Dr Endla Lõhkivi Opponent: Dr Kristina Rolin (University of Helsinki, Finland) Defence: the dissertation will be defended at the University of Tartu, Estonia, on the 17 th of August 2016, at 14.15, in the Senate Hall of the University of Tartu. The work on the dissertation has been supported by the Graduate School of Linguistics, Philosophy and Semiotics at the University of Tartu; the European Social Fund’s Doctoral Studies and Internationalisation Programme DoRa, which is carried out by Foundation Archimedes; the national scholarship programme Kristjan Jaak, which is funded and managed by Archimedes Foundation in collaboration with the Ministry of Education and Research; the Centre of Excellence in Estonian Studies (European Union, European Regional Development Fund) and the research projects IUT20-5 (Estonian Ministry of Education and Research) and PUT732 (Estonian Research Council). 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................5 INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................7 CHAPTER 1. PHILOSOPHY GONE SOCIAL ...................................10 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 10 1.2 Old traditions and urgent new beginnings...................................................................... 11 1.3 Responding to challenges............................................................................................... 13 1.4 Making meliorative proposals and justifying them........................................................ 17 1.5 Seeing science as practice .............................................................................................. 24 1.6 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 26 CHAPTER 2. THE SOCIAL CHARACTER OF SCIENCE: SOCIAL VALUES AND SOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN SCIENCE...................................................................................................28 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 28 2.2 Science and social values: challenging the value-free ideal .......................................... 29 2.3 Science and social interactions: challenging cognitive individualism........................... 35 2.4 Proposals, possibilities and limitations .......................................................................... 39 2.5 Longino’s critical contextual empiricism....................................................................... 44 2.6 Conclusion...................................................................................................................... 52 CHAPTER 3. KITCHER’S ACCOUNT: FROM CARVING NATURE AT THE JOINTS TO UNCOVERING UNIDENTIFIABLE OPPRESSION.......................................................54 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 54 3.2 The Advancement of Science......................................................................................... 55 3.2.1 The context and the questions ................................................................................. 55 3.2.2 Aims, progress and rationality ................................................................................ 56 3.2.3 The social organisation of science .......................................................................... 59 3.2.4 Taking stock ............................................................................................................ 60 3.3 Science, Truth, and Democracy ..................................................................................... 62 3.3.1 The context and the questions ................................................................................. 62 3.3.2 Scientific aims and progress.................................................................................... 63 3.3.3 The social organisation of science .......................................................................... 66 3.3.4 Taking stock ............................................................................................................ 68 3.4 Science in a Democratic Society.................................................................................... 70 3.4.1 The context and the questions ................................................................................. 70 3.4.2 Values...................................................................................................................... 71 3.4.3 The social organisation of the system of public knowledge ................................... 72 3.4.4 Taking stock ............................................................................................................ 75 3.5 Conclusion: a well-ordered system ................................................................................ 77 CHAPTER 4. A CRITIQUE OF KITCHER’S ACCOUNT: EXPERTS, KNOWLEDGE AND PARTICIPATION.........................80 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 80 4.2 Agreeing with Kitcher.................................................................................................... 81 4.3 Disagreeing with Kitcher ............................................................................................... 84 4.3.1 Introduction: a system of careful restrictions.......................................................... 84 4.3.2 Experts..................................................................................................................... 86 3 4.3.3 Expertise.................................................................................................................. 90 4.3.3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 90 4.3.3.2 Research directions, concepts and values ........................................................ 91 4.3.3.3 Local knowledge .............................................................................................. 97 4.3.3.4 An escape path?.............................................................................................. 102 4.3.4 Public participation ............................................................................................... 102 4.3.5 A diagnosis and an alternative .............................................................................. 110 4.4 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... 116 CHAPTER 5. APPROACHING THE SOCIAL ORGANISATION OF SCIENCE WITH LONGINO’S IDEAS ........................................117 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 117 5.2 Underdetermination...................................................................................................... 118 5.3 Is Longino’s account of objectivity social?.................................................................. 121 5.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 121 5.3.2 Biddle’s criticism .................................................................................................. 121 5.3.3 Objectivity, collective tacit knowledge and rule-following.................................. 123 5.3.4 Objectivity for “encumbered selves” .................................................................... 128 5.3.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................. 132 5.4 Using Longino’s account to discuss the social organisation of science....................... 133 5.5 Using Longino’s account to make philosophy of science political: why?................... 139 5.6 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... 144 CHAPTER 6. PHILOSOPHY GONE POLITICAL ..........................146 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 146 6.2 Using Longino’s account to make philosophy of science political: how?................... 147 6.3 “Knowing things in common”: Jasanoff on civic epistemologies ............................... 154 6.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 154 6.3.2 Knowledge society and “knowing things in common”......................................... 155 6.3.3 Petunias and public participation .......................................................................... 158 6.3.4 Philosophical implications .................................................................................... 163 6.3.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................