THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Dr Andreas Schloenhardt The University of Queensland The University of British Columbia Senior Lecturer TC Beirne School of Law Centre for International Relations Brisbane Qld 4072 6476 NW Marine Drive Australia Vancouver BC V6T 1Z2 Canada PARLIAMENT OF AUSTRALIA Parliamentary Joint Committee on the Australian Crime Commission Inquiry into the legislative arrangements to outlaw serious and organised crime groups Submission by Dr Andreas Schloenhardt The University of Queensland TC Beirne School of Law This submission was prepared on April 4, 2008. All information and legislation is current as on that date Parts of this submission have been published or submitted for publication in Queensland Criminal Law, Melbourne (Vic): Oxford University Press, 3rd ed 2008 ―Taming the Triads: Organised Crime Offences in PR China, Hong Kong and Macau‖ (2008) Hong Kong Law Journal (under review) ―Mafias and Motorbikes: New Organised Crime Offences in Australia‖ (2008) 19(3) Current Issues in Criminal Justice (University of Sydney) ―Transnational Organised Crime and International Law: The Palermo Convention‖ (2005) 29 Criminal Law Journal 340-354 All copyright remains with the author. Andreas Schloenhardt, Vancouver (BC), April 4, 2008 2 Table of Contents Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... 2 Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................. 4 About the author .......................................................................................................................... 5 Part 1: Introduction and Background ............................................................................................... 6 Part 2: International Legislative Arrangements (International Law) ................................................. 8 2.1 Background ...................................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Definition of Organised Criminal Group .......................................................................... 10 2.3 Organised Crime Offence, article 5(1)(a) ........................................................................ 13 Part 3: International Legislative Arrangements (Domestic Laws) .................................................. 18 3.1 Canada ........................................................................................................................... 18 3.1.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 18 3.1.1.1 Bill C-95 (1997) .................................................................................................... 18 3.1.1.2 Bill C-24 (2001) .................................................................................................... 21 3.1.2 Criminal organisations ............................................................................................. 22 3.1.2.1 A group of three or more persons in or outside Canada, s 467.1(1)(a) ................ 24 3.1.2.2 Facilitating or committing of one or more serious offences, s 467.1(1)(b) ............ 25 3.1.2.3 Material benefit, s 467.1(1)(b) .............................................................................. 26 3.1.3 Relevant offences .................................................................................................... 27 3.1.3.1 Participation in activities of criminal organisation, s 467.11(1) .............................. 28 3.1.3.2 Commission of offence for criminal organisation, s 467.12(1) .............................. 30 3.1.3.3 Instructing commission of offence for criminal organisation, s 467.13(1) ............. 32 3.1.4 Observations and remarks ....................................................................................... 34 3.2 New Zealand .................................................................................................................. 38 3.2.1 Former s 98A Crimes Act 1961 (NZ), 1997-2002 ..................................................... 38 3.2.2 Current s 98A Crimes Act 1961 (NZ), 2002- ............................................................ 39 3.2.2.1 Organised criminal group ..................................................................................... 39 3.2.2.2 Participation offence............................................................................................. 41 3.2.3 Observations ........................................................................................................... 43 3.3 China .............................................................................................................................. 45 3.3.1 Context and Background ......................................................................................... 45 3.3.1.1 Patterns of organised crime in China ................................................................... 45 3.3.1.2 Criminal Law in China .......................................................................................... 46 3.3.2. Extension of criminal liability, Article 26 ................................................................... 47 3.3.3. Offence for Criminal Syndicates, Article 294 ............................................................ 48 3.3.3.1 Criminal organisations of a syndicate/triad nature ................................................ 48 3.3.3.2 Organising, leading, participating in a criminal syndicate ..................................... 51 3.3.4 Observations ........................................................................................................... 53 3.4 Hong Kong SAR ............................................................................................................. 55 3.4.1 Organised Crime in Hong Kong ............................................................................... 55 3.4.1.1 Opium and other illicit drugs ................................................................................. 55 3.4.1.2 Criminal organisations in Hong Kong ................................................................... 55 3.4.2 Organised and Serious Crime Ordinance ................................................................ 58 3.4.2.1 Definition of organised crime ................................................................................ 59 3.4.2.2 Other provisions ................................................................................................... 60 3.4.3 Societies Ordinance ................................................................................................. 61 3.4.3.1 Unlawful societies ................................................................................................ 62 3.4.3.2 Offences associated with unlawful societies ......................................................... 62 3.4.4 Remarks .................................................................................................................. 66 3.5 Macau SAR .................................................................................................................... 68 3.5.1 Context and overview .............................................................................................. 68 3.5.1.1 Organised crime in Macau ................................................................................... 68 3 3.5.1.2 Criminal law in Macau .......................................................................................... 68 3.5.2 Criminal associations, Penal Code (Macau) ............................................................ 69 3.5.3 Secret society/associations, Organised Crime Law 1997 (Macau) ........................... 70 3.5.3.1 Definition of secret society/associations ............................................................... 70 3.5.3.2 Offences relating to secret societies/associations, ............................................... 71 3.5.3.3 Specific Offences, arts 3–13 Organised Crime Law 1997 (Macau) ...................... 72 3.5.4 Observations ........................................................................................................... 72 Part 4: The Need for Organised Crime Laws in Australia .............................................................. 74 4.1 Existing Extensions of Criminal Liability .......................................................................... 74 4.2 Inchoate liability .............................................................................................................. 75 4.3 Secondary Liability .......................................................................................................... 76 4.4 Conspiracy ...................................................................................................................... 77 Part 5: Australian Legislative Arrangements to Target Organised Crime .................................... 80 5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 80 5.2. New South Wales ........................................................................................................... 81 5.2.1 Background ............................................................................................................. 81 5.2.2 Definition of ―criminal group‖ ...................................................................................