Causal Factors in the Crime of Trafficking of Women for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation: An exploration into push and pull factors relevant to women trafficked from Moldova to Western Europe Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg i. Br. Vorgelegt von Scharie Tavcer aus Kanada WS 2006-2007 Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Hans-Jörg Albrecht Zweitgutachter: apl. Prof. Dr. Baldo Blinkert Vorsitzender des Promotionsausschusses der Gemeinsamen Kommission der Philologischen, Philosophischen und Wirtschafts- und Verhaltenswissenschaftlichen Fakultät: Prof. Dr. Hans-Joachim Gehrke Datum der Fachprüfung im Promotionsfach: 6. August 2007 2 Zusammenfassung....................................................................................................... 6 Summary..................................................................................................................... 8 Abstract..................................................................................................................... 10 Acknowledgements................................................................................................... 11 Chapter One: Introduction ........................................................................................ 12 1.1 Deficits in the literature ...................................................................................... 16 1.2 Purpose of the Study........................................................................................... 19 1.3 Research Questions............................................................................................. 21 Chapter Two: Description and Definitions............................................................... 22 2.1 Describing the State of Affairs in Eastern Europe.............................................. 22 2.1.1 Moldova ........................................................................................................... 25 2.1.1.1 Economics..................................................................................................... 33 2.1.1.2 Violence ........................................................................................................ 36 2.1.2 Moldovan Women ........................................................................................... 37 2.2. Definitions of the Trafficking of Women for the Purpose of Sexual Exploitation ................................................................................................................................... 39 2.2.1 What is the trafficking of women for the purpose of sexual exploitation ....... 45 2.2.2 Legislative Definitions..................................................................................... 54 2.2.3 Non Governmental Organisation Definitions .................................................. 76 2.3. Causal Factors.................................................................................................... 78 2.3.1 Why Study Causal Factors? ............................................................................. 81 2.3.2 Causal Factors Studied..................................................................................... 84 Chapter Three: Legal Framework............................................................................. 86 3.1 Prostitution.......................................................................................................... 86 3.2 Conventions Signed and Ratified........................................................................ 88 3.3. The National Action Plan................................................................................... 91 3.4. Trafficking of Human Beings Article 165......................................................... 94 3.4.1. Policing, Prosecution, Protection, Prevention and Rehabilitation under Article 165............................................................................................................................. 98 Table 1: Prosecutions, Convictions and Legislation changes 2003-2005............... 100 3.5 Domestic Violence............................................................................................ 105 Chapter Four: Theoretical Framework.................................................................... 108 4.1 Sociology .......................................................................................................... 108 4.1.2. General Strain Theory................................................................................... 109 4.1.3 Criminology ................................................................................................... 113 4.2 Feminism and Criminology .............................................................................. 115 4.2.1 Feminism........................................................................................................ 115 4.2.1.1 Marxist Feminism ....................................................................................... 118 4.2.1.2 Feminist Criminology ................................................................................. 121 4.3 Victimology ...................................................................................................... 127 4.4 Hypotheses........................................................................................................ 131 4.4.1 Economics...................................................................................................... 132 4.4.2 Violence ......................................................................................................... 133 4.4.3 Corruption...................................................................................................... 135 4.4.4 Demand for Sex Services............................................................................... 136 3 Chapter Five: Methodology .................................................................................... 138 5.1 Feminist Methodology...................................................................................... 140 5.2 Instrument ......................................................................................................... 142 5.2.1 Primary Source............................................................................................... 142 5.2.2 Triangulation.................................................................................................. 145 5.2.3 Secondary Sources......................................................................................... 146 5.3 Procedure .......................................................................................................... 148 5.4 Participants........................................................................................................ 150 5.5 Ethical Concerns ............................................................................................... 151 5.5.1 Informed Consent........................................................................................... 153 5.5.2 Privacy ........................................................................................................... 154 5.5.3 Physical and Mental Distress......................................................................... 155 5.6 Strengths and Limitations of the Study............................................................. 160 Chapter Six: State of Research ............................................................................... 163 6.1 La Strada Moldova Findings............................................................................. 163 Table 2: Type of Exploitation 2003........................................................................ 163 Table 3: Type of Exploitation 2005........................................................................ 164 6.2 Typical Profile of a Trafficking Victim from Moldova.................................... 164 Table 4: Age of Trafficking Victims ...................................................................... 165 Table 5: Marital Status and Family Relations......................................................... 165 Table 6: With whom trafficking victims lived before doing abroad ...................... 166 6.3 Economics as a Causal Factor........................................................................... 166 Table 7: Level of Education.................................................................................... 167 Table 8: Employment and Income Level Prior to Going Abroad........................... 168 6.4 Violence as a Causal Factor.............................................................................. 169 Table 9: Violent Experiences Prior to Going Abroad............................................. 170 Chapter Seven: Doctoral Study Findings................................................................ 171 7.1 Demographics ................................................................................................... 171 7.2 Countries of Transit and Destination ................................................................ 172 Table 10: Destination Countries ............................................................................. 174 Table 11: Factors Pulling Women towards Other Countries.................................. 175 Table 12: Leaving Home Country .......................................................................... 176 7.3 Economics as a Causal Factor..........................................................................