1 HISTORY OF MIGRATIONS – MIDDLE AGES Fabio Baggio 0. Terminological Questions The period called “Middle Ages” lies in the “middle” between ancient and modern history. This is obviously a terminology that responds to a Europocentric history and cannot have universal claims. The middle ages, i.e. those ages preparing the full development of civilization, differ in dating according to geographical locations of reference. Moreover, the European Middle Ages is still under discussion regarding its start dates, its end and its different sub-periods. Generally historians indicate as starting point of the Middle Ages the fall of the Roman Empire and make its end coincide with the arrival of Columbus in America. Historians also distinguish between the High Middle Ages, from the fifth to the tenth century, and the Low Middle Ages, from the eleventh to the fifteenth century. 1. Barbaric Invasions After a long series of barbarian invasions, in 476 AD the Western Roman Empire fell at the hands of Odoacer, king of the Herul, who ousted the last emperor Romulus “Augustulus.” The imperial territories, including Rome, ended up in the hands of barbarian kings. They were the chiefs of different tribes, often not directly tied to each other. Until the fifth century these tribes, with few exceptions, had lived beyond the imperial boundaries. Many of them settled down as structured human groups after an earlier migration from the northeastern areas of Europe or from different regions of Asia. Vandals. They were Germanic tribes without much contact with the Roman Empire. Historians believe that they originally came from northern Europe and from the coasts of Scandinavia. They migrated first from Poland to Silesia and Bohemia, then to Germany and France, and finally to Spain. They settled down in the Mediterranean coast of North Africa. Their invasions are characterized by cruelty and the total destruction of conquered cities. Visigoths. They were also Germanic peoples, belonging to the great family of the Goths. They initially settled in Dacia, on the left bank of the Danube and in the third century they become allies (foederati) of the Romans to protect the borders of the Empire. In the fifth century they migrated first to Gaul and then to Spain, where they can consolidate their kingdom. Ostrogoths. They were Germanic tribes of the family of the Goths. They left Scandinavia to settle in the third century between the mouths of the rivers Don and Dnieper, up to the shores of the Black Sea. For a couple of centuries they alternated moments of good relations with the Roman Empire and moments of open conflict. In the fifth century they moved into the Balkan Peninsula. After the fall of Romulus Augustulus they fought against Odoacer (Herul) and conquered the Italian peninsula, in alliance with the Eastern Roman emperor. Sueves. They were Germanic tribes from the Baltic Sea regions. In the first century they settled in the present Rhine. In later centuries they expanded in Gaul and joined the Vandals in their westward migration and conquest. They finally migrated to Spain and settled in the north region (Galicia). They allied with the Roman emperor and committed to ensuring peace in the Iberian Peninsula. Lombards. They were Germanic tribes, originally settled in Scandinavia. They migrated to the continent and, up the river Elbe, they reached Pannonia. In the sixth century, the Lombards conquered the Italian peninsula, taking advantage of the weakness of the Ostrogoth kingdom and the weak restoration of the Eastern Roman Empire in Ravenna. Franks. They were Germanic tribes, resulting from the merger of several existing populations along the banks of the Rhine. In the fourth century they settled in central Gaul and became allies 2 of the Roman Empire, entrusted the defense of the Rhine frontier against the Alans, Sueves and Vandals. After 476 A.D. they split into two kingdoms: the West Franks, in the valley of the river Scheldt, and the Eastern Franks, at the banks of the river Moselle. It 's difficult to precisely estimate the numerical values of these barbarian invasions/migrations. While there are reliable data for the Vandals under King Genseric (around 80,000 people), historians agree that no barbarous group exceeded 100,000 people. Nonetheless, at the end of their invasion/migration into the West Roman Empire’s territories, barbarians did not exceed 5% of the total population. The map below highlights the main migration routes of the different barbarians groups. 2. The Eastern Roman Empire Despite ups and downs, the eastern portion of the Roman Empire managed to resist the barbarian invasions first and then the Islamic expansion up to the fifteenth century. Faced with the Muslim threat, the alliances with the different barbarian kingdoms in Europe over several centuries were extremely useful, although the Near East territories were ceded to the Arab sultans. Thanks to its geographical position, the empire of Constantinople served as a “physical” and cultural corridor between Asia and Europe, compulsory passage for the representatives of two very different worlds, which wanted to dialogue when they were not at war with each other. The imperial territories were also a refuge for those escaping from the various invasions and dissidents of the new regimes. The same areas were also obliged transit places for both pilgrims and crusaders heading to the Holy Land. 3. Golden Ages and Fall of the Maya Empire In 317 A.D. the Maya Empire entered its Classic Period, which lasted until 987. In this period the Mayas reached their zenith, expanding to all Guatemala. The dominant states (Palenque, Piedras Negras, Copan and Quirigua) were constituted with the development of large cities, mainly due to a remarkable phenomenon of urbanization. For the huge construction works many slaves were captured and deported from the surrounding forests. At the end of the ninth century all 3 these cities were abandoned for reasons that still remain obscure: perhaps earthquakes, climate changes, epidemics or civil wars. 4. The Chinese Empire of the Sui and Tang Dynasties In 581 A.D. the emperor Sui Wendi Jian Yang founded the Sui dynasty, which lasted until 618. The emperor Yangdi undertook the excavation of the Grand Canal linking Beijing to Hangzhou for 1794 km. It was a huge endeavor that required the displacement of thousands of workers following the progress of construction. The completion of the work greatly improved the river transport of goods and people, fostering internal migration. In the seventh century the Tang dynasty took power to rule the empire until 907. After ten years of internal strife and division, which caused several forced migration flows, the emperor Tang Taizong Li Shimin consolidated the empire leading the Chinese feudal society to an unprecedented prosperity. In the eighth century, however, the first signs of decline appeared starting the decline of the Tang Dynasty. 5. The Muslim Expansion In the seventh century, the Arabian Peninsula was populated by a large number of tribes, mostly nomadic, often fighting among themselves. Despite the obvious ethnic affinities, there was no element that would facilitate cohesion. In the early decades of the century Muhammad, with his preaching of Islam (= unconditional devotion to Allah), rose as a prophet of a monotheistic religion that succeeded in unifying the various tribes into one nation essentially theocratic. After the death of the prophet (632 AD), the leadership of the new nation was entrusted to the kings who have converted to Islam. They saw in the weakness of the neighboring nations an opportunity to begin to transform the entire known world into "El Islam" (i.e. the territory loyal to the religion of Allah). Thus they began to “conquer” the neighboring territories, starting from Palestine, Syria, Egypt and Persia, which before the end of the century are already under the domination of the Arab caliphs. In the eighth century it was the turn of Armenia, Cyprus, Turkestan, North Africa and finally Spain. The Muslim expansion is stopped on the one side at the Pyrenees and on the other side at the outskirts of Constantinople. For decades, massive displacements of people took place. Thousands of people migrated either to invade and occupy the conquered territory or to escape and take refuge in safer places. The map below highlights the distinct stages of the Muslim expansion from the seventh century to the tenth century. 4 6. The Holy Roman Empire From the sixth century onwards the Frankish kingdom was consolidated by the Merovingian dynasty. In the eighth century the Carolingian dynasty took over the rule. After stopping the Muslim expansion at the Pyrenees (Charles Martel), they deserved the gratitude of the pope, which developed in an alliance between the Papacy and the Franks that was consolidated during the reign of Pepin the Short. The latter’s son, Charlemagne, was able to unify and strengthen the kingdom and initiated a series of military campaigns that expanded the Franks’ rule in Germany, Austria and Italy. Charlemagne wanted to restore the Western Roman Empire with a strong Christian basis: the Holy Roman Empire. Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the pope himself in the Christmas of 800. This event marked an alliance with the spiritual power that started a time of peace and of great economic and intellectual prosperity, founded on the harmonic merger of Latin and Germanic elements. Charlemagne grandsons divided the empire into three parts, corresponding more or less to modern France, Germany and Italy. After a series of internal struggles, in the tenth century the Holy Roman Empire, identified with the reign of Germany, went to the Ottonian dynasty, which maintained the imperial title until 1024. Later the imperial crown went to the house of Franconia/Swabia. As many modern historians stated, the Holy Roman Empire set the basis of the European union, which politically developed only in modern times.