CITIZENS OF THE COSMOS? How the limitations of Kwame Appiah and the Marvel Cinematic Universe contribute to a reimagining of partial cosmopolitanism A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Sociology in the University of Canterbury by Leon Claridge School of Language, Social and Political Sciences University of Canterbury 2016 Table of Contents Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 4 A Common Existence ................................................................................................................. 6 The Place of American Popular Culture ................................................................................... 17 The Cosmopolitan Project ........................................................................................................ 23 Kwame Anthony Appiah .......................................................................................................... 29 Personal Background ............................................................................................................ 29 Appiah’s Theoretical Background ........................................................................................ 31 An Ethical Model of Cosmopolitanism ................................................................................. 38 Themes ............................................................................................................................. 39 Context ............................................................................................................................. 60 The Marvel Cinematic Universe ............................................................................................... 65 A brief history of superheroes and the rise of Marvel Comics ............................................ 65 Marvel Studios...................................................................................................................... 69 A Reactive Model of Cosmopolitanism ................................................................................ 73 Themes ............................................................................................................................. 74 Context ............................................................................................................................. 90 Insufficient Models of Cosmopolitanism ................................................................................. 94 A Model of Situational Cosmopolitanism .............................................................................. 100 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 106 Appendix ................................................................................................................................ 108 Plot descriptions of the films of the Marvel Cinematic Universe ...................................... 108 Phase One ....................................................................................................................... 108 Phase Two ....................................................................................................................... 113 Bibliography ........................................................................................................................... 120 Marvel Studios Films .......................................................................................................... 127 1 Acknowledgments I would like to first thank my supervisors, Ruth McManus and Mike Grimshaw. Your support, both technical and otherwise, has been incredible; your advice and enthusiasm has been greatly appreciated. Also, huge thanks Alice, Alicia, Cushla, and Morgan, for putting up with my ranting and raving; you are some of the smartest people I know. As always, I need to thank my parents. You might not always understand what is going on, but you are always on my side; there are never enough words to explain how much that matters. Oma – you saw me start this but did not get the chance to see me finish; thank you for everything. 2 Abstract This thesis explores the competing models of partial cosmopolitanism suggested by Kwame Appiah and the Marvel Cinematic Universe. This exploration is undertaken as a response to a larger concern with the place of difference within a shared humanity. To do this, this thesis examines first the history and the influences of the models of cosmopolitanism that Appiah and the Marvel Cinematic Universe suggest; it then completes a thematic analysis of these models, before comparing and contrasting the two models in a dialectical approach. The models are also located within a broader theoretical context, with a consideration of Marxist / neo-Marxist and popular cultural theory providing background and grounding for this thesis. This thesis argues that the models of partial cosmopolitanism that Appiah and the Marvel Cinematic Universe suggest are, individually, insufficient answers to the question of difference. They suffer from similar limitations, such as an inability to be considered as anything other than theoretical and an inaccessibility to anyone without significant levels of actionable agency. This thesis instead argues that a synthesis of these two models is required. A third model of partial cosmopolitanism is outlined; this model of situational cosmopolitanism combines aspects of Appiah’s ethical cosmopolitanism and the Marvel Cinematic Universe’s reactive cosmopolitanism, and extends this synthesis through the use of Joseph Fletcher’s situation ethics. Situational cosmopolitanism suggests a cosmopolitanism that is context dependent; it also requires the participation of not just those with high levels of actionable agency but those with lower levels as well. It is underpinned by notions of partiality and driven by the desire to lay the foundations for a future that is better – more equal, fair, and just – than today. It is an ongoing aspiration, understanding that there is no cosmopolitan state to be reached, just an ethos to be fostered and encouraged. 3 Introduction How as humans we can best live together is a question consistently proposed throughout human history. It is a question that can be found in our text books, newspapers, and in our myths and stories; a question that has fuelled violence and a question that has called for peace. Any answers that have arisen are constantly being challenged and reviewed, with ideas changing and evolving over time. Cosmopolitanism is one particular answer to this question. In this thesis, it is defined as a form of politics based on the belief that all human beings belong to a shared community based on a shared moral code, regardless of where they are from in the world and the particulars of any culture, ethnicity, and religion. It sits as an alternative to the two opposing poles of globalised universalism and multiculturalism. These poles suggest subsuming differences and retreating into cultural silos respectively. This thesis argues that neither is an appropriate, nor a realistic, answer; rather, as an alternative that favours neither side, partial cosmopolitanism is a more convincing answer. To construct this argument, this thesis investigates the high culture model of partial cosmopolitanism presented by Kwame Appiah and the popular culture model of partial cosmopolitanism that is suggested by the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Kwame Appiah theorises a model of cosmopolitanism which focuses on the universal individual. This thesis argues that Appiah’s model can be labelled an ethical cosmopolitanism; it considers how an individual should live their life in accordance with other people and social structures. It is a partial cosmopolitanism, in that Appiah believes that humans live better on a smaller scale and cannot be expected to care about strangers in the exact same way that they care about those closest to them. Alternatively, the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) suggests a different model of cosmopolitanism that can be labelled reactive. This model focuses on a collective of individuals engaging in cosmopolitan responses to (physical) threats, disengaging from this cosmopolitan collective once the threat has passed. It too is a partial cosmopolitanism, careful not to demand that moral obligations are put above ethical obligations and vice versa. However, I believe that these two models are insufficient answers in and of themselves to the question of how we can best live together. In this thesis, presented as an extended 4 discursive essay so as to facilitate flow and discussion, I take a dialectical approach to develop an alternative model of partial cosmopolitanism that exists as a synthesis and an elaboration of Appiah’s and the MCU’s models. After locating this thesis within a broader theoretical framework, I examine the history, influences, and models of cosmopolitanism of both Appiah and of the MCU. This will be followed by an argument as to why these two models are insufficient. I will then present an alternative model of cosmopolitanism, arguing that a model of situational