This electronic thesis or dissertation has been downloaded from Explore Bristol Research, http://research-information.bristol.ac.uk Author: Dunleavy, Katherine Title: The Image of Priapus Ambiguity and Masculinity in Roman Visual Culture General rights Access to the thesis is subject to the Creative Commons Attribution - NonCommercial-No Derivatives 4.0 International Public License. A copy of this may be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode This license sets out your rights and the restrictions that apply to your access to the thesis so it is important you read this before proceeding. Take down policy Some pages of this thesis may have been removed for copyright restrictions prior to having it been deposited in Explore Bristol Research. 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The Image of Priapus: Ambiguity and Masculinity in Roman Visual Culture Katherine-Ann Dunleavy A dissertation submitted to the University of Bristol in accordance with the requirements for award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Arts School of Classics May 2018 Abstract From the first century BCE the image of Priapus increased in popularity in Roman visual culture. Although rarely depicted in public art, Priapus’ representation was ubiquitous in domestic and personal contexts. However, this imagery has largely been overlooked because of its decorative and highly sexual nature. This study re-evaluates these disregarded images and explores the popularity of images of Priapus, with particular reference to the masculine culture of Roman urban settings. Previous work has tended to catalogue but here Priapus’ image is approached thematically in relation to rural fertility cult, apotropaic laughter, domestic luxury and mythical landscapes. Specifically, this study looks at the relationship between images of Priapus and discourses about tradition, indulgence, foreignness and performance. As a man-made deity, Priapus occupies a unique position in the visual language of mythology which allows him to blur the boundaries between the human world and distant, imagined landscapes. He is, therefore, an expression of the Roman tendency towards artificiality in art, architecture and day to day life. This study will show that by contextualising images of Priapus in the dominant culture of the time the images can provide insight into the social tensions and anxieties of the patrons, and viewers, of these artworks. This thesis will demonstrate that representations of Priapus reflect key elements in the construction of Roman male identity, including the balance between Roman tradition and Hellenistic influence, and between aggressive masculinity and sophisticated effeminacy. In memory of John Dunleavy. Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr Shelley Hales for the continuous support of my research over many years. Her guidance has been essential in keeping the project on track and has opened up many new areas of knowledge for me. Besides my advisor, I would like to thank Dr Genevieve Lively for monitoring my progress and providing thoughtful feedback. My thanks also go to Dr Silke Knippschild for insightful comments and encouragement at an early stage in this project’s development. Special thanks goes to Prof. Keri Facer for supporting this research, and my personal and professional development; they have been instrumental in allowing me to reach the end of this study. Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for supporting me throughout writing this thesis and my life in general, and particularly my husband, Euan, for his unwavering enthusiasm and reassurance. Declaration I declare that the work in this dissertation was carried out in accordance with the requirements of the University's Regulations and Code of Practice for Research Degree Programmes and that it has not been submitted for any other academic award. Except where indicated by specific reference in the text, the work is the candidate's own work. Work done in collaboration with, or with the assistance of, others, is indicated as such. Any views expressed in the dissertation are those of the author. SIGNED: ............................................................. DATE:.......................... Contents List of Illustrations ........................................................................................................................ i Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 Main Themes ...................................................................................................................................... 3 Ambiguity ........................................................................................................................................ 4 ‘Elite’ Roman Males ........................................................................................................................ 6 Material ............................................................................................................................................. 10 Why is this Thesis Important? ........................................................................................................... 17 Structure ........................................................................................................................................... 17 Chapter One: Fertility and Rusticity ............................................................................................ 20 Fertility in the Image of Priapus ........................................................................................................ 23 Abundant Fruits ............................................................................................................................ 24 The Phallus .................................................................................................................................... 27 Payne Knight, Frazer and ‘Primitive’ Fertility Cults ........................................................................... 30 A Brief History of Priapus in Scholarship ....................................................................................... 32 ‘Others’ and Origins ...................................................................................................................... 39 Sex and Obscenity ......................................................................................................................... 41 Morality ......................................................................................................................................... 44 Greek Origins and Roman Contexts .................................................................................................. 47 Priapus and the East ..................................................................................................................... 49 Priapus and the ‘Cultural Revolution’ ........................................................................................... 51 Images of Cult Activity .................................................................................................................. 55 The Creation of the Rustic Image ................................................................................................. 63 Rural Life ....................................................................................................................................... 65 A Timeless Part of the Landscape ................................................................................................. 68 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 72 Chapter Two: Protection and Humour ........................................................................................ 74 Apotropaism ..................................................................................................................................... 75 Portable and Functional Objects ................................................................................................... 80 Liminal Spaces ............................................................................................................................... 85 Frontality and Confrontation ........................................................................................................ 89 Humorous Apotropaic Images ...................................................................................................... 95 Elite Laughter .................................................................................................................................. 101 Urban versus Rustic ...................................................................................................................