MEASURES BY THE EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENT TO COUNTER THE EXPLOITATION OF (SOCIAL) MEDIA - FACEBOOK AND AL JAZEERA Master Thesis Name: Rajko Smaak Student number: S1441582 Study: Master Crisis and Security Management Date: January 13, 2016 The Hague, The Netherlands Master Thesis: Measures by the Egyptian government to counter the exploitation of (social) media II Leiden University CAPSTONE PROJECT ‘FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION VERSUS FREEDOM FROM INTIMIDATION MEASURES BY THE EGYPTIAN GOVERNMENT TO COUNTER THE EXPLOITATION OF (SOCIAL) MEDIA - FACEBOOK AND AL JAZEERA BY Rajko Smaak S1441582 MASTER THESIS Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Crisis and Security Management at Leiden University, The Hague Campus. January 13, 2016 Leiden, The Netherlands Adviser: Prof. em. Alex P. Schmid Second reader: Dhr. Prof. dr. Edwin Bakker Master Thesis: Measures by the Egyptian government to counter the exploitation of (social) media III Leiden University Master Thesis: Measures by the Egyptian government to counter the exploitation of (social) media IV Leiden University Abstract During the Arab uprisings in 2011, social media played a key role in ousting various regimes in the Middle East and North Africa region. Particularly, social media channel Facebook and TV broadcast Al Jazeera played a major role in ousting Hosni Mubarak, former president of Egypt. Social media channels eases the ability for people to express, formulate, send and perceive messages on political issues. However, some countries demonstrate to react in various forms of direct and indirect control of these media outlets. Whether initiated through regulations or punitive and repressive measures such as imprisonment and censorship of media channels. This research examines the measures taken by the Egyptian government to counter the exploitation of social media by opposition groups. In this research the emphasis is put on the opposition movements, as they pose a major threat to the positioning of the government in Egypt. This research is predominantly focused on official measures taken by the government. Thorough comparative analysis of several constitutions and measures implemented primarily focused on limiting the impact of (social) media is included. To put this in contract, the freedom of expression and the freedom of the press will be examined in order to gain knowledge on the actual outcomes of the measures. This research demonstrates that in the case of Egypt, while repressive measures have been imposed by the government, Al Jazeera and Facebook did find their way into the communication monopoly of Egypt. Seemingly, repression and harsh actions toward public thought by the government, increase the ability for media to disseminate their statement. Secondly, this thesis concludes that the several Egyptian government administrations since 2011 modified the constitution, in order to get grip on media, into their own favour. Enabling them to arrest, repress and limit public thought even more. This study highlights the importance of public thought, and the need for an enhanced idea of the abilities and impact of (social) media in repressive countries. Keywords: Social Media, Al Jazeera, Facebook, Egypt, Exploitation, Measures Master Thesis: Measures by the Egyptian government to counter the exploitation of (social) media V Leiden University Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... V Acronyms .............................................................................................................................................. VIII 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 2. Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 3 2.1. Roadmap research ....................................................................................................................... 3 2.2. Grounded theory ......................................................................................................................... 6 3. How Egypt traditionally tried to control the thoughts of its citizens .......................................... 9 3.1. 2000-2011.................................................................................................................................... 9 3.2. Data ........................................................................................................................................... 12 4. What were the measures taken by the Egyptian government before the Arab revolutions to limit public/media thought and expression? ........................................................................................ 15 4.1. Egyptian media landscape ......................................................................................................... 16 4.2. Constitution ............................................................................................................................... 17 4.3. Penal code ................................................................................................................................. 19 4.4. Emergency Law .......................................................................................................................... 21 5. What is the impact of modern developments, such as the rise of Al Jazeera and the Arab Spring, on the near communication monopoly of the state of the Egyptian government? ................. 26 5.1. The Arab Spring – A collective action ........................................................................................ 28 5.2. The role of (social) media .......................................................................................................... 29 5.3. Timeline and collective action through (social) media.............................................................. 31 5.3.1. ‘We are all Khaled’ ..................................................................................................................... 32 5.3.2. Al Jazeera versus Mubarak ........................................................................................................ 33 5.4. Measures taken by Mubarak ..................................................................................................... 37 Master Thesis: Measures by the Egyptian government to counter the exploitation of (social) media VI Leiden University 6. During his presidency, how did Morsi, leader of the former MB and FJP, respond to the effects the net and the TV channel Al Jazeera had on the communication monopoly of Egypt during the Arab Spring? ................................................................................................................................................... 40 6.1. The SCAF .................................................................................................................................... 41 6.1.1. 2011 Interim constitution .......................................................................................................... 43 6.1.2. Concluding remarks ................................................................................................................... 46 6.2. Mohamed Morsi’s transitional period June 2012 – July 2013 .................................................. 48 6.2.1. 2012 Constitution ...................................................................................................................... 50 6.2.2. Measures taken by Morsi .......................................................................................................... 53 6.3. Concluding remarks ................................................................................................................... 55 7. How is current ruling President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi responding to influential (social) media platforms, while improving the living conditions in Egypt? .................................................................. 58 7.1. 2014 Constitution ...................................................................................................................... 60 7.2. Measures taken by al-Sisi .......................................................................................................... 61 7.3. Versus al Jazeera ....................................................................................................................... 65 7.3.1. Detention Al Jazeera journalists ................................................................................................ 66 7.4. Concluding remarks ................................................................................................................... 68 8. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 71 Master Thesis: Measures by the Egyptian government to counter the exploitation of (social) media VII Leiden University Acronyms European Union EU Grounded Theory GT International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ICCPR Middle East and Northern Africa MENA Muslim Brotherhood MB Non-Governmental Organization NGO Supreme Council of the Armed Forced SCAF The Egyptian Radio and Television Union ERTU United Nations Declaration of Human Rights UDHR United Nations UN Master Thesis: Measures by