University of Warwick institutional repository: http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap A Thesis Submitted for the Degree of PhD at the University of Warwick http://go.warwick.ac.uk/wrap/853 This thesis is made available online and is protected by original copyright. Please scroll down to view the document itself. Please refer to the repository record for this item for information to help you to cite it. Our policy information is available from the repository home page. Nationalism and Power Politics in Japan’s Relations with China A Neoclassical Realist Interpretation By Yew Meng LAI A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Politics University of Warwick, Department of Politics and International Studies December 2008 TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations vi Abbreviations vii Acknowledgements ix Declaration x Abstract xi CHAPTER ONE Introduction 1 1.1. Preliminary Literature Review and Theoretical Conceptualisations 5 1.2. Definitions, Empirical Scope and Limitations 11 1.3. The Research Problem and Objectives 18 1.4. Research Design and Thesis Structure 20 CHAPTER TWO Interpreting Nationalism in Japanese-Chinese Relations: Contending Approaches and Analytical Frameworks 22 2.1. Contending Approaches to Explaining Japanese-Chinese Relations: Area-studies versus Mainstream IR Theories and Alternative Frameworks 22 2.1.1. Area-studies approach 25 2.1.2. The IR approach: aussenpolitik and innenpolitik 26 2.1.3. The holistic/integrated approach 31 2.2. Treatment of Nationalism in Mainstream IR Theories: Realism and Liberalism 33 2.2.1. Mainstream IR theories’ “analytical myopia” on nationalism 34 2.2.2. Neo-realism’s under-appreciation of nationalism in Japanese-Chinese relations 37 2.2.3. Neo-liberalism’s treatment of nationalism: a “mirror-image” of neo-realism? 41 2.3. Nationalism in Constructivism and Area-Studies 44 2.3.1. Constructivism/Area-studies’ understanding of nationalism in Japanese-Chinese relations 46 2.4. Bridging the Divides: A Neoclassical Realist (NCR) Perspective 52 2.5. A Neoclassical Realist Framework of Nationalism and State Behaviour/Preferences 55 2.6. Conclusion 67 ii CHAPTER THREE The Trends, Developments, and Dynamics of Japanese-Chinese Relations 69 3.1. Bilateral Relations during the Cold War: From Confrontation to Normalisation 69 3.2. Post-Cold War Relations: “Hot Economics, Cold Politics”? 79 3.3. External and Domestic Dynamics Shaping Japanese-Chinese Relations 90 3.3.1. External Dynamics 91 3.3.2. Domestic Dynamics 98 3.4. Conclusion 104 CHAPTER FOUR Theories of Nationalism and Its Manifestations in Japan 105 4.1. Defining and Understanding Nationalism 105 4.2. The Genesis, Evolution, and Meanings of Nationalism in Japan 112 4.2.1. Overview of prewar nationalism 113 4.2.2. The persistence and evolution of nationalism in postwar Japan 119 4.3. Contemporary Japanese Nationalism: Driving Forces and Manifestations 124 4.3.1. Driving forces 124 4.3.2. Fault-lines and manifestations of the neo-nationalist discourse 129 4.4. State and Popular Nationalism in Contemporary Japan 135 4.5. Conclusion 138 CHAPTER FIVE Nationalism, Japan’s China Policy-making, and Japanese-Chinese Relations 140 5.1. Nationalism and the Problems of Perception, Images, and Attitudes in Japanese-Chinese Relations 140 5.2. Japanese Foreign Policy-making: An Overview 145 5.2.1. Actors and process 145 5.2.2. Nationalism and foreign policy-making in Japan 156 5.2.3. Other variables in foreign policy-making 159 5.3. Balancing between Nationalist and Pragmatic Goals in Contemporary Japanese-Chinese Diplomacy 161 5.3.1. Nationalism and the “history” problem 162 iii 5.3.2. Nationalism and shifting security perceptions and policies 170 5.4. Conclusion 177 CHAPTER SIX Case-Study I: Nationalism, Identity Politics, and the Yasukuni Shrine Dispute in Japanese-Chinese Relations 179 6.1. Background of the Yasukuni Issue 180 6.1.1. The origins of Yasukuni Shrine 180 6.1.2. Nationalism and the politics of identity: the “Yasukuni problem” defined 181 6.1.3. Yasukuni Shrine as a domestic issue 187 6.1.4. Internationalisation of the Yasukuni dispute 189 6.2. The Yasukuni Problem in Contemporary Japanese-Chinese Diplomacy: Nationalism and the External-Domestic Nexus in Japan’s China Policy-making 191 6.2.1. Koizumi and the Yasukuni disputes (2001-2006) 193 6.3. Power Politics versus Nationalism and Identity Politics: A Neoclassical Realist Assessment of Koizumi’s Yasukuni Policy 206 6.3.1. The August 13, 2001 visit 207 6.3.2. The April 21, 2002 visit 216 6.3.3. The January 14, 2003 visit 221 6.3.4. The 2004 New Year’s Day visit 224 6.3.5. The October 17, 2005 visit 228 6.3.6. The August 15, 2006 visit 234 6.4. Conclusion 237 CHAPTER SEVEN Case-Study II: Nationalism,Sovereignty, and Japanese-Chinese Territorial/Maritime Disputes in the East China Sea 239 7.1. Background of the ECS Territorial/Maritime Disputes 239 7.1.1. Origins and nature of the ECS disputes 240 7.1.2. Domestic nationalist pressure and “internationalisation” of the ECS dispute 248 7.2. Nationalism and the International-Domestic Nexus in Japan’s China Policymaking over the ECS Disputes 254 7.2.1 An overview of the ECS conflict (2001-2006) 254 iv 7.3. A Neoclassical Realist Interpretation of Nationalism and Japan’s China Policy towards the ECS Dispute 263 7.3.1. The Senkaku/Diaoyudao incidents (2003-2004) 263 7.3.2. Chinese submarine intrusion (November 2004) 269 7.3.3. Natural gas exploration dispute (May 2004 – September 2006) 274 7.4. Conclusion 283 CHAPTER EIGHT Conclusions and Reflections 285 8.1. Empirical Findings 286 8.1.1. The salience and limits of nationalism 286 8.1.2. Nationalism’s efficacy vis-à-vis other variables 290 8.2. Theoretical Findings and Reflections on Neoclassical Realism 297 8.2.1. General evaluation of the NCR Model of Nationalism and State Behaviour 298 8.2.2. Comparative evaluation: nationalism vis-à-vis power politics, and interdependence? 301 8.3. Implications for Future Research 303 REFERENCES 306 Main Bibliography 306 Newswires/News Monitoring Services/Newspapers 346 Online Sources/Websites 360 List of Interviewees 361 APPENDICES Appendix 1 Map of East China Sea Appendix 2 Key Chronological Developments Shaping Japan’s External and Domestic Conditions in Relations to China Policy-making (April 2001 – September 2006) v LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Tables Table 1 Similarities and Differences between Contending Approaches and Theoretical Paradigms 25 Table 2 NCR Hypotheses on State Behaviour/Preferences 66 Table 3 Expected State Behaviour/Preference-of-action 67 Table 4 Senkaku/Diaoyudao Archipelago 240 Diagram Diagram 1 NCR Framework of Nationalism and State Behaviour/Preferences 61 Diagram 2 NCR Model of Nationalism and State/Behaviour/Preferences 65 Diagram 3 NCR Model of Nationalism and Japanese State Behaviour/ China Policy Preferences on the Yasukuni Shrine Issue 238 Diagram 4 NCR Model of Nationalism and Japanese State Behaviour/ China Policy Preferences on the ECS Disputes 284 Figures Figure 1 Japanese Public Image of/Affinity towards China 88 Figure 2 Japanese Public Approval of Prime Ministerial Visits to Yasukuni (2001-2006) 214 vi ABBREVIATIONS AOAB Asian and Oceanian Affairs Bureau APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation ARF ASEAN Regional Forum ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASEM Asia-Europe Meeting CCP Chinese Communist Party CCS Chief Cabinet Secretary DPJ Democratic Party of Japan ECS East China Sea EEZ Exclusive Economic Zones EU European Union FDI Foreign Direct Investment FM Foreign Minister FPA Foreign Policy Analysis FTAs Free Trade Agreements FY Fiscal Year G-7 Group of Seven Industrialised Countries G-8 Group of Eight Industrialised Countries GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP Gross Domestic Product GNP Gross National Product GSDF Ground Self-Defence Force IMF International Monetary Fund IR International Relations JABF Japan Association of War-Bereaved Families (Nihon Izokukai) JCG Japan Coast Guards (after April 2000) JCP Japan Communist Party JDA Japan Defence Agency (before January 2007) J-MSA Japan Maritime Safety Agency (before April 2000) JETRO Japan External Trade Organisation JSP Japan Socialist Party LDP Liberal-Democratic Party LTTA Long Term Trade Agreement METI Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (from 2001 onwards) MEXT Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (from 2001 onwards) MOD Ministry of Defence (from January 2007) MOE Ministry of Education (before 2001) MOF Ministry of Finance MOFA Ministry of Foreign Affairs MSDF Maritime Self-Defence Force NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation NCR Neoclassical Realism NDPG National Defence Programme Guideline NDPO National Defence Programme Outline NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations NIDS National Institute for Defense Studies, Japan NPOs Non-Profit Organisations ODA Official Development Assistance OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development vii PARC Policy Affairs Research Council PFT Peace and Friendship Treaty PKO Peacekeeping Operations PLA People’s Liberation Army PM Prime Minister PMO Prime Minister’s Office PRC People’s Republic of China SDF Self-Defence Force SDPJ Socialist Democratic Party of Japan SNGs Sub-national Governments TMD Theatre Missile Defence UN United Nations UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Laws of the Sea UNECAFE United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East UNSC United Nations Security Council US United States USD United States Dollar WB World Bank WTO World Trade Organisation WWI World War One WWII World