Feminist Perspectives on Gendered Violence: An Examination of Boko Haram and the Conflict in Northern Nigeria Amanda Wright and Caitlin Miller Amanda Wright & Caitlin Miller 10th Semester Master’s Thesis Global Refugee Studies Supervisor: Steffen Bo Jensen Feminist Perspectives on Gendered Violence: An Examination of Boko Haram and the Conflict in Northern Nigeria Abstract The ongoing insurgency in Northern Nigeria by the radical Islamist group Boko Haram has been characterised by extreme levels of violence towards women, including abductions, forced marriage, rape and the use of female suicide bombers. This study analyses and discusses this gendered violence and offers explanations for the possible causes through the application of three feminist theoretical frameworks. ‘Rape as a weapon of war’ posits Boko Haram’s violence as a tactic purposefully adopted to meet military objectives. ‘Feminist political economy’ explains gendered violence as the extension of more invisible, structural forms of violence against women that characterised Northern Nigerian society in peacetime. ‘Protest masculinity’ examines the violence as a consequence of a crisis of masculinity, positioning it as an attempt by men to claim the power and status they feel entitled to, and rescue their masculinity from marginalisation. Each of the three theories has its own focus and agenda and concentrates its analysis on different aspects of the conflict. Rape as a weapon of war distinguishes between the individual acts of violence and considers their impact on both victims and wider society. Feminist political economy looks to social structures and institutions and argues that patriarchy predisposes men to violence. Studying masculinities places focus on the individual male fighters and offers an explanation as to why violence might appeal to them. The aim of this study is not to test these theories against each other or establish which can offer the most ‘correct’ view of the conflict. Instead, the theories are taken in conversation with one another to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the situation. Explicating the different theoretical propositions also enables a discussion of their various strengths and weaknesses, both generally and in explaining the actions of Boko Haram. Key words: gendered violence, sexual violence, rape, Boko Haram, terrorism, Nigeria, women and war, gender, conflict, feminism, masculinity, feminist political economy, rape as a weapon of war Cover photo: Women living in Bama IDP camp, February 2017 (authors’ own) Table of Contents Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 2 Research design ............................................................................................................................................................................ 7 Theory Selection ........................................................................................................................................................................... 9 Empirical Material .................................................................................................................................................................... 11 Limitations .................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 1. Feminist Approaches to Gendered Violence ............................................................................................................... 17 Rape as a Weapon of War ..................................................................................................................................................... 17 Feminist Political Economy.................................................................................................................................................. 23 Protest Masculinity................................................................................................................................................................... 28 2. The sexual violence committed by Boko Haram in North East Nigeria is not a side effect of conflict but a tactic adopted to achieve military aims .................................................................................................................. 35 Kidnapping ................................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Forced Marriage and Rape ................................................................................................................................................... 37 Forced Pregnancy ..................................................................................................................................................................... 40 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 42 3. The gendered violence of Boko Haram is caused by gendered political-economic inequalities in Nigerian society............................................................................................................................................................................... 50 Marriage and household dynamics .................................................................................................................................. 50 Access to Education ................................................................................................................................................................. 54 Economic Opportunities and Assets ............................................................................................................................... 55 Political Participation .............................................................................................................................................................. 56 Legal Protections and Rights ............................................................................................................................................... 58 Discussion ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 59 4. Boko Haram’s actions are a violent articulation of protest masculinity as a reaction to marginalisation and the impossibility of achieving hegemonic masculinity through other socially- accepted means ............................................................................................................................................................................... 66 Hegemonic masculinity in Northern Nigeria ......................................................................................................... 66 A Crisis of Masculinity? ..................................................................................................................................................... 70 Boko Haram and Protest Masculinity ........................................................................................................................ 73 Discussion ................................................................................................................................................................................ 77 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 84 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 87 Abbreviations BOYES Borno Youth Empowerment Scheme CJTF Civilian Joint Task Force DRC Democratic Republic of Congo FPE Feminist Political Economy HRW Human Rights Watch IDP Internally Displaced Person IOM International Organization for Migration IR International Relations NGO Non-Governmental Organisation UN United Nations UNFPA United Nations Population Fund US United States 1 Introduction Women and men are positioned differently in society and are therefore differently affected by conflict. While both undoubtedly suffer during war and are victims of violence, the different symbolic understandings of gender means that women and men are targeted in different ways. When considering the violence perpetrated in war, we commonly tend to think of soldiers wounded and killed on the battlefield. However, in recent years, focus has shifted to considering how women as civilians are also victims of wartime violence and how they have been increasingly targeted directly by soldiers and armed opposition groups. In particular, women are more likely than men to experience sexual violence. In recent conflicts in Bosnia Herzegovina, Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of Congo women faced brutal and intentional violence on a mass scale. Such violence against women in war is shocking not only because it targets