Identity and archaeology in daily life: the material culture of the Crusader states 1099-1291 Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Cardiff University School of History, Archaeology and Religion Hannah Rose Buckingham December 2016 Summary This thesis is an interdisciplinary study of the material culture of Frankish daily life within the mainland Crusader states in the 12th and 13th centuries. It explores the role of material culture in aspects of Frankish identity, including items of personal adornment and dress accessories. These portable objects are discussed, along with ceramics and glass, in the context of material from Western Europe and the Eastern Mediterranean. In addition to the archaeological material, information from the written sources and the art produced in the Crusader states is examined. The role of Frankish identity in Crusader society is also discussed. This thesis is an attempt to begin integrating the material culture of daily life into broader discussions of Frankish identity. The key findings of the research can be summarised as follows: whilst creating and reproducing a distinctive group identity in relation to the cultures they encountered in the Levant, the archaeological evidence also demonstrates that Frankish identity articulated the shared experience of living in the Crusader kingdoms. As more material becomes available from excavations the conclusions from this thesis can be developed and expanded, adding further to our understanding of Frankish identity. DECLARATION This work has not been submitted in substance for any other degree or award at this or any other university or place of learning, nor is being submitted concurrently in candidature for any degree or other award. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ……………………… STATEMENT 1 This thesis is being submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of …………………………(insert MCh, MD, MPhil, PhD etc, as appropriate) Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… STATEMENT 2 This thesis is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except where otherwise stated. Other sources are acknowledged by explicit references. The views expressed are my own. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… STATEMENT 3 I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loan, and for the title and summary to be made available to outside organisations. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… STATEMENT 4: PREVIOUSLY APPROVED BAR ON ACCESS I hereby give consent for my thesis, if accepted, to be available for photocopying and for inter- library loans after expiry of a bar on access previously approved by the Academic Standards & Quality Committee. Signed ………………………………………… (candidate) Date ………………………… Table of Contents Acknowledgements vi Abbreviations viii List of figures ix Introduction 1 Chapter 1. The Archaeology of Material Culture 4 1.1 Identity and Society 5 1.2 Frankish Society 10 1.3 Material culture in the Crusader states 14 Chapter 2. Material Culture of Daily Life 20 2.1 Small finds 21 2.1.1 Jewellery 33 2.1.2 Dress Accessories 48 2.1.3 Gaming 79 2.2 Ceramics 89 2.3 Glass 113 2.4 Domestic Architecture 129 Chapter 3. Written Sources 150 3.1 Identity in the written sources 150 3.2 Material culture in the written sources 162 Chapter 4. Art and Material Culture 181 4.1 Crusader art 182 4.2 Clothing in Crusader art 185 4.2.1 Wall Paintings 186 4.2.2 Illuminated Manuscripts 205 4.3 Furniture and household objects 234 Chapter 5. The city of Acre 244 Conclusion 253 Bibliography 264 Acknowledgements The first and foremost thanks must be given to my supervisors Professor Denys Pringle and Professor Helen Nicholson, who have been unfailingly supportive and generous with their time and expertise since I first arrived at Cardiff as an undergraduate. Their comments and suggestions were always welcomed, and any errors remaining are entirely my own. Thanks are also due to the Arts and Humanities Research Council, for their financial support throughout my studies. Likewise the SHARE Postgraduate Fund, who awarded me several travel grants. There are many academics and archaeologists working in the field of Crusader studies to whom I owe a great deal of thanks. At the Israel Antiquities Authority I would like to thank Danny Sion, for sharing the material from excavations in Acre and for always taking the time to answer my questions. Also at the IAA, I extend my thanks to Alegre Savariego, who facilitated my access to the objects from ‘Atlit on a number of occasions. Dr Edna Stern and Professor Adrian Boas were also very generous with their time, and shared aspects of their own research. Others who I would like to thank for their time and suggestions are Dr Balázs Major, who invited me to excavate in Lebanon, and Dr Daniel Master, who allowed me to refer to unpublished material from the Leon Levy Expedition to Ashkelon. I would like express my gratitude to the staff of the Arts and Social Studies Library at Cardiff University, especially the Inter Library Loan team, who were always helpful and generous with their time to answer queries and track down books and articles. Thanks are also due to Helen Szewczyk, Postgraduate Administrator in SHARE, for her continued assistance over the course of my studies. vi Last but by no means least thanks must go to my friends, who have encouraged my studies over the years. Above all I am forever indebted to my parents and husband, who always supported my studies and had faith in my abilities. vii Abbreviations ADAJ Annual of the Department of Antiquities Jordan BAAL Bulletin d’Archéologie et d’Architecture Libanaises BAR British Archaeological Reports CCCM Corpus Christianorum, Continuatio Mediaevalis (Turnhout: Brepols 1966- ) ESI Excavations and Surveys in Israel IAA Israel Antiquities Authority NEAEHL New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land, ed. Ephraim Stern, 5 vols. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993-2008) PPTS Palestine Pilgrims Text Society Library, 13 vols. (London 1890-7) QDAP Quarterly of the Department for Antiquities Palestine RS Rolls Series. Rerum Britannicarium Medii Aevi Scriptores, 99 vols. (London: Longman, 1858-96) RRH Add Regesta regni Hierosolymitani: addimentum, ed. R. Röhricht (Innsbruck: 1893) RHC Occ Recueil des Historiens des Croisades: Historiens Occidentaux, 5 vols. (Paris: Imprimerie Impériale, 1844-95) RHC Lois Recueil des Historiens des Croisades : Les Assises de Jérusalem, 2 vols. (Paris: Imprimerie Royale, 1841-3) viii List of Figures Page Fig. 1 Map of the Latin East. Riley-Smith, Illustrated History, Map 3. xiii Fig. 2 Paternoster from Caesarea. Photo Clara Amit. Courtesy of the IAA. 33 Fig. 3 Mother of pearl pendant, ‘Atlit, AT 47.1334. 36 Fig. 4 Mother of pearl pendant, Acre. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon. IAA. 37 Fig. 5 Bronze pendant, ‘Atlit, AT 47.1335. 39 Fig. 6 Bronze diadem, Acre. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon, IAA. 44 Fig. 7 Lady hunting with hounds. Alphonso Psalter, London, British Library, Add. MS 24686, fol. 13v, detail. © British Library Board 45 Fig. 8 Bone buckle, ‘Atlit. AT 41.96. 49 Fig. 9 Bone buckle, ‘Atlit. Rockefeller Museum. 50 Fig. 10 Gilded buckle, Acre. Reg No. 1033. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 55 Fig. 11 Gilded buckle, Acre. Reg No. 3052. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 57 Fig. 12 Gilded buckle, Acre. Reg No. 130449/6. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 58 Fig. 13 Copper alloy buckle, ‘Atlit. Brosh, ‘Glass and Minor Arts’, Fig. 3. 59 Fig. 14 Buckle with floral plate. Acre. Reg No. 4222. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 62 Fig. 15 Bar mount, ‘Atlit. AT 40.1059. 64 Fig. 16 Quatrefoil mount, Acre. Reg No. 1113. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 65 ix Fig. 17 Fleur-de-lis mount, Acre. Reg No. 1141. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 65 Fig. 18 Lion mount, Acre. Reg No. 1163/a. Photo courtesy Danny Syon IAA. 66 Fig. 19 Bell, Acre. Reg No. 3090. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 68 Fig. 20 Buttons, Acre. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 69 Fig. 21 Bird pin, ‘Atlit. AT 40.1181. 72 Fig. 22 Tweezers, Ramot 06. Photo courtesy of Naama Brosh IAA. 76 Fig. 23 Thimble, Acre. Reg No. 3460/a. Photo courtesy of Danny Syon IAA. 78 Fig. 24 Bone dice, ‘Atlit. AT 41.175/1-3. 82 Fig. 25 Nine men’s morris gaming board. 82 Fig. 26 Nine men’s morris board, ‘Atlit. AT 41.194. 84 Fig. 27 Summary of main ceramic types 90 Fig. 28 Yilan Kalesi inner gate keystone. Photo courtesy of Denys Pringle. 109 Fig. 29 Male donor, Glykophilusa, Bethlehem. Kühnel, Wall Painting, Plate VI.8. 188 Fig. 30 Female donors, Glykophilusa, Bethlehem. Kühnel, Wall Painting, Plate VI.9. 189 Fig. 31 Male pilgrim, Saint James, Bethlehem. Kühnel, Wall Painting, Plate XIII.21. 195 Fig. 32 Male donor at Mar Phocas, Amioun. 199 Fig. 33 Male donor with St George, Bahdeidat. 202 Fig. 34 Male donor with St Theodore, Bahdeidat 203 Fig. 35 Melisende Psalter, London, British Library, Egerton MS 1139, fol. xii-v, detail. © British Library Board 209 x Fig. 36 Melisende Psalter, London, British Library, Egerton MS 1139, fol. x-r, detail. © British Library Board 211 Fig. 37 Melisende Psalter, London, British Library, Egerton MS 1139, fol. x-r, detail. © British Library Board 211 Fig. 38 Arsenal Bible, Paris, Bibliothéque de l’Arsenal, MS 5211, fol. 322v. Reproduced from www.gallica.bnf.fr. 219 Fig. 39 Arsenal Bible, Paris, Bibliothéque de l’Arsenal, MS 5211, fol. 69v, detail. Reproduced from www.gallica.bnf.fr 220 Fig. 40 Arsenal Bible, Paris, Bibliothéque de l’Arsenal, MS 5211, fol. 81r, detail. Reproduced from www.gallica.bnf.fr 221 Fig. 41 Arsenal Bible, Paris, Bibliothéque de l’Arsenal, MS 5211, fol. 269r, detail.