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The Female Doppelganger in Gothic : A Comparative Perspective

Masterarbeit

zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades einer Magistra der Philosophie

an der Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz

vorgelegt von Kira SHYMANSKA

am Institut für Anglistik Begutachter: Ao. Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr. phil. Martin Löschnigg

Graz, 2011 Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I am absolutely grateful to my mother, who enabled me to study in Graz and was my Pierian Spring throughout my whole life. Were it not for her great love and support, I would never be able to achieve what I already did. Secondly, I would also like to thank Dr. Martin Löschnigg for understanding and his valuable advice on my complicated topic. Last, but not least, I am thankful to Dr. Nancy Campbell and Pr. Christoph Houswitschka for being the most helpful and friendly Joint Degree coordinators ever.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ...... 4 2. Doppelgangers in Real Life and in Fiction ...... 6 2.1 The Double and Its Origins ...... 6

2.2 The General Gothic Tradition of Introducing Doppelgangers ...... 9

2.3 Types and Functions of Doppelgangers ...... 11

3. The Double Within and Without ...... 13

3.1 Male Doubles as Cognitive Phenomena ...... 13 3.2 Female Doubles as a Distorted Mirror of a Man ...... 19 3.3 External Female Doubles as Original Doppelgangers ...... 35 4. The Comparative Perspective on the Female Doppelgangers ...... 50

4.1 The Traditional Female Doubles and Their Role in the Early Gothic ...... 50 4.2 The (A)typical Female in Stoker‘s Writing and Her Significance ...... 53 4.3 The Contrast of the Female Doppelgangers‘ Roles in Gothic Fiction ...... 58 5. Conclusion ...... 61 6. Abstract ...... 62 7. Deutsche Zusammenfassung ...... 64 8. Bibliography ...... 68 8.1 Primary Literature ...... 68 8.2 Secondary Literature ...... 69 8.3 Internet Sources ...... 71

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Abbreviations and Shortenings

The Confessions – The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner US – Uncle Silas: a Tale of Bartram-Haugh TM – : a Romance Dr.J. & Mr.H. – The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde D – TJ or The Jewel – The Jewel of the Seven Stars

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1. Introduction Everyone is a moon, and has a dark side which he never shows to anybody. – Mark Twain

Doppelgangers became a leitmotiv of Gothic fiction as soon as the word entered English language in 1830s (cf. Day 1985: 76). They were taking many shapes and performing various functions in order to contribute to the and illustrate the inner of the main . The majority of these characters, however, for a long time belonged to male doubles that were well researched. This Thesis offers the comparative perspective on the female doppelgangers in Gothic fiction. The first part of the paper is dedicated to the theoretical basis of the study. It will explore the origins of doubles and doubling, and their use in literature. The doppelgangers in fiction are closely linked to the problem of the split personality that was becoming more and more popular in the mid-. Although scientific papers on the matter appeared much later than the literary works featuring doubles, they all agree that doubling is based on the attempt to split one‘s personality or to project one‘s features on someone or something else, even nonexistent. The second chapter consists of the complex analysis of the female doppelgangers in Gothic fiction. The first part will provide the analysis of the most popular examples of the male doubles: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by and The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner by James Hogg. These two works help to establish the analogy for the analysis of the female doubles. The analysis will show, that in contrast to men, women in Gothic are not prone to suffering from the split personality. However, when it comes to projections, it is much more common for a male hero to perceive his hidden qualities or inclinations in a female . The second part of the chapter will show that the female doppelgangers are introduced by the authors in order to mirror the men. They mainly serve to highlight and catalyze the negative inclinations of them. The material analysed includes M. G. Lewis‘s The Monk, which provides the example of the two opposite female doppelgangers mirroring the ; Uncle Silas by J. T. , which illustrates the link between the two negative doubles; and ‘s Dracula, which presents an atypical female double. The third part of the chapter is devoted to the analysis of the female doubles of women. In The Jewel of the Seven Stars Stoker draws two visually identical doubles who are absolutely opposite to one another. The main heroine neither suffers split personality, nor mirrors her double. The two women provide contrast which is used by the author to highlight the role and

4 characteristics of the Victorian women on the one hand, and to contribute to the uncanny event on the other. The last chapter of the paper represents the general analysis and summary of the characteristics of the female doppelgangers in Gothic fiction. It shows why, analogous to males, the female doubles are introduced and how they in relation to their doubles and the in general. The summary outlines the main roles and functions of the female doppelgangers and the ways in which they are performed. The analysis states that female doubles can also act on the level of the plot in order to introduce supernatural links to other characters or catalyze their activity, thereby contributing to the development of the story. Thereby, the paper provides the versatile analysis of the female doppelgangers, their characteristic features, roles and functions. The analysis is done on the background of the general Victorian trends concerning the place and role of women in 19th century society, depiction of women in , and their importance in frames of Gothic fiction.

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2. Doppelgangers in Real Life and Fiction

The notion of a doppelganger, or a double, entered the literature long before it became interesting for psychoanalysts. It originated from the tradіtіon – faіrytales and – as a character representіng evil and closely lіnked to the protagonіst (Ralph 1989: 22). The term ‗Doppelganger‘ was coined and first used by the German writer in his ―Siebenkäs‖ in 1796 (Bär, cited in Krehl 2008: 4). Literally meaning ‗double-goer‘, it served for the depiction of an evil double of the main hero. Introduced into the English language in 1830 (Online Etymology Dictionary 2010), it acquired a ‗ghostly meaning‘, that is, a doppelganger could be a ghostly haunting an alike hero, his \ her evil twin etc. Although the borrowing was adopted in the English language, the more common term referring to a doppelganger is a double. Most of the researchers and literary critics use the two terms as totally interchangeable, and the same will be done in this paper. Before referring directly to the role of doubles in literature, it is important to discuss why they were introduced and how they managed to evoke such a great interest among Gothic writers and the Victorian .

2.1 The Double and Its Origins

In the psychomachia, a fight for a soul, was a common phenomenon as there always existed the positive and the negative side of a man, and the faith and church could guide the ‗lost sheep‘. The story of salvation was performed so many times that the public started to identify virtues and vices with a character separate from the main hero. The story of Dr. Faustus could serve as a good example of a situation when a man, tempted by the devil, succumbs to the evil side and loses his soul. In this case the evil also came from without; it did not originate in the mind of the scientist, and caused ‘s downfall, although Faustus himself was guilty of pride and lust for forbidden knowledge. By the end of the 18th century writers, philosophers and scientists became more interested in human personality rather than distant and spiritual issues. People started to bear more responsibility for their own actions, and their psyche became the main justification of their misdeeds. The complex dilemma of good and evil was moved from the spiritual to the sphere of the mind. Together with the scientific papers there started to emerge works of fiction that shared the same interest and made use of the scientific discoveries.

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Many philosophers and scientists devoted their works to the issue of the human psyche and the place of evil in it, but the one who was the most capable to provide a plausible and widely used approach was Karl Gustav Jung. He developed a system of archetypes, which would contribute to the effectiveness of the psychoanalysis. The one that would be of importance for this paper is the archetype of the Shadow, the ―dark aspect of the psyche‖ (Lingston-Valier 1988: 38) representing the unconscious. If incorporated into Sigmund Freud‘s triad of Superego, Ego and Id, the Shadow would have its place on the level of Id. Freud, Jung‘s predecessor and teacher, who created psychoanalysis and made a great discovery of the human subconsciousness and unconscious, wrote that Superego is a constraint for the Ego and is also able to suppress the Id. Thereby, Superego serves as the guide of Ego and at the same time limits the influence of Id, animal instincts and basic urges. Superego could be determined by such aspects as , social standards or conscience. The part of the personality responsible for the conscious actions of a person is the Ego, or self. Sometimes it may seem the weakest part of the triad as it is hardly able to control the Id, or unconscious. In many works Freud wrote that it is the Id that sends disturbing signals to the person, for example, through dreams (cf. Freud: not paged). Moreover, it is also responsible for the instincts and antisocial behaviour. As the Id is controlled by Superego, it is unable to fully influence the Ego, but when the strength of the Superego is weakened, the Id may overcome rational thinking and behaviour. The place of the Shadow, taking into the account the aforementioned system, is in the realm of the Id. The Shadow represents the darkest side of the human being, thereby including the uncontrolled unconsciousness. The archetype in literature could be represented in many forms and a doppelganger is the one of them. The place of classical doubles is predetermined because of their essentially evil nature. Although represented in different forms and plots, the doppelgangers would never leave the side of darkness, mystery and supernatural. They are employed by the Gothic writers for a couple of reasons: to create the ‗Gothic‘ atmosphere, provide a powerful antagonist, and to illustrate the inner conflict of a hero. Seymour Boorstein argues that it is ―unlikely for mature adults to pass through life without some consideration of the existential dilemma that life itself represents‖ (1997: 125). He claims that men have always needed an answer why they exist and what they should do. A classical example of an answer to these questions is the morality plays, where spectators were presented the two sides of a human being: ―Virtue and Vice‖ (Rogers 1970: 31) and the two ways to salvation or burning in eternal flames. Already in this literature genre men faced a dilemma of good and evil, the split of personality and psychomachia, a fight for the soul. 7

In Freudian terms, this dilemma is caused by the attempts of the Id to break out from the suppression of the Superego. The instincts and uncontrollable desires are believed to be the indivisible part of the human psyche, its animal side. What makes the human being humane is the ability to go beyond primitive needs and desires, to coexist effectively with other humans and control the irrational impulses of the Id. The stronger the Superego, the easier it is to keep the Ego stable and the Id suppressed. In Jungian terms, psychological difficulties are unavoidable, for ―the Shadow remains unconscious, kept out of awareness by defence mechanisms such as repression and projection‖ (Daniels 2005: 73). As the Shadow is the negative impulse, it is supposed to be suppressed by the common sense, feeling of responsibility or at least guilt. Thereby, when a hero or a heroine doubts, it is the social order or the feeling of responsibility that guide them through their inner dilemma. Another way to solve the inner conflict is to create a projection. Daniels attributes the defensive mechanism of projection to the ―dangerous evil‖, the one that can cause ―undeserved harm‖ (2005: 100). He writes that ―unacceptable shadow characters are cast out from the self and perceived as being located in something external – other people‖ (ibid. 100). This idea has two sides: firstly, the person, who applies the projection, sees his\her traces or inclinations in someone else. Secondly, in order to dissociate him-\herself from the own negative traces or actions, the person would create another individual possessing these qualities. The problem that arises and is usually the basis of Gothic writing is that a person is in most cases unaware of the projection process. This means that, unconscious of their own negative traces, the people start noticing them in others and start fighting them instead of solving their inner problem. At the same time, needing support of their (usually negative) actions, people sometimes project an external figure that serves as an encouraging element. This element also serves as a whipping boy, as the person is unaware that the misdeeds originate in their unconscious, and thereby blames all the misfortunes on their projection. This projected individual, however, does not necessarily have to be of the same sex or appearance. Following the canons of doubling, the projection should either look the same as the person who created it, or possess similar moral or mental qualities. At the same time, the doubles may be antagonistic. As was mentioned before, people project qualities which they are not aware of, but at the same time these are the things which they are troubled by. The state of being troubled by internal psychological issues may be called the inner conflict. This conflict is dramatic and is frequently used by authors to create a proper atmosphere in their writing or to evoke reader‘s compassion and pity. The heroes hesitate, suffer, search for answers

8 hidden in them and fight their way through doubts and inner suffering. This psychological phenomenon may be introduced into literature through the character of a double.

2.2 The General Gothic Tradition of Introducing Doppelgangers

The doubles were introduced into the Gothic literature between the 1760s and 1890s (cf. MacAndrew 1979: 53). R. Rogers writes that ―doubling in literature symbolises a dysfunctional attempt to cope with mental conflict‖ (1970: vii). It seems that creation of a double was the best way to draw attention of the readership to the inner conflict of a hero. Thereby, a Gothic doppelganger would not only represent the evil and the supernatural as it is, but act as the part of the main hero‘s psyche. The emergence of a person or creature, which is really closely linked to the hero, would first of all contribute to the Gothic . For example, the created by Dr. , is the main catalyst of the in the story and the main cause of anxiety and of other characters. Of course, one cannot prove that the monster is Frankenstein‘s double if analysed isolated from the fact that Victor has created it to allow his inner inclinations and desires cross the borders of what is acceptable in the society (cf. Day 1985: 139–141). The monstrosity of a human being is also best represented through supernatural channels. First of all, it creates as in case of Wrigham and Gil-Martin from the Confessions of the Justified Sinner, because the reader is really eager to find out who the latter is. Secondly, the reader is kept excited and terrified by not only the general gloomy atmosphere of The Monk, but by the extent of Amborsio‘s violence, stimulated by his female double Matilda, in particular. Day states: ―the forces that shape Ambrosio‘s and Wrigham‘s destinies are, not the power of supernatural, nor that of the material world, but rather the forces of their own nature‖ (1985: 39). Thereby, he emphasises the idea that although the purpose of introducing Gil-Martin and Matilda as doubles is the part of Gothic setting, their main function is to represent the inner conflict of Wrigham and Ambrosio respectively. The problem of the hero in this case is that his personality is split into two (cf. Day 1985: 76). Some heroes do not realise their problem, as in the case of Wrigham, and others are not only aware of it, but even try to solve it. A good illustration could serve The Case of Mr. Jekyll and Dr. Hyde. The hero knows his inner problem and is really concerned with making himself a better man by splitting and isolating his two selves. This means that the division of the self is directly linked to the fear of one‘s own double nature (cf. Day 1985: 133). This fear is usually conveyed to readers as they are also ignorant of the inner conflict of the character, or his\her real ‗dark side‘. 9

Nevertheless, there is no agreement among the researchers and literary critics on the point whether the doubles are always antagonistic to each other. In contrast to Day and MacAndrew, Rogers believes that the ―overt dramatic conflict between doubles proves to be the exception rather than the rule‖ (1975: 48). An illustration to this statement may serve the example of Matilda and Isabella from The of Otranto. Two young girls are absolutely opposite in their appearance and behaviour. However, they share the same problem: they have to marry the old wicked men. Matilda has to marry Frederic, who later appears to be Isabella‘s father, and Isabella has to marry – Matilda‘s father. Another thing that unites the women and makes them doubles is their love for Theodore. Although the women quarrel a bit about Theodore‘s love, they both face similar problems and follow similar patterns of the plot. They are both pursued by their prospective old husbands and are both rescued by Theodore, the real heir of the Castle. The noteworthy episode in the is the scene when the two girls are supposed to meet Theodore in the church. They both do but Matilda is stabbed by her father who mistakes her for Isabella. Thereby one of the doubles is eliminates and Theodore does not have to make a choice. He marries Isabella because she was close to Matilda and can understand his feelings towards the latter one. The example shows that the relation of the doubles in the novel is not presented as a conflict. Although Theodore can marry only one of them, they do not try to solve this problem by removing each other. This means that if the characters are initially separate and do not reflect or represent the split self of each other, their confrontation is unnecessary. This means that there are different types of doubles that are not limited or bound to the projection performed by the individual. However, the interference of Manfred may serve as the resolution of their possible conflict. His actions, although independent, follow the folklore tradition that there has to remain only one double. At the same time, this action causes Manfred‘s downfall as well. Thus it is possible to claim that the doubles are not only linked to each other but also indirectly influence other characters of the story they appear in. In this case it is important to identify the types of doppelgangers, their link to the characters they represent and their functions.

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2.3 Types and Functions of Doppelgangers

Doubling first of all has psychological roots and enters the sphere of literature because the author wants to inform the readership of the complex nature of hero‘s self. That is, ―when the author wishes to depict mental conflict within a single mind, a most natural way for him [...] is to represent [the split mind] by two or more characters‖ (Rogers 1970: 29). From the point of view of transpersonal psychology, this strategy is logical provided that the setting is transcendental or supernatural (see Daniels 2005). The split personality may in itself seem an abnormal phenomenon. Although contemporary readers admit that there are always two sides of the self, the Victorian audience still believed in its integrity. They got used to the hero of , who is torn, for example, between wish and duty, and thus suffers agonizing doubts (see MacAndrew 1979). Thereby, the depiction of the acute confrontation of the two separate characters representing parts of one personality would cause a shock and thrill the reader – the two effects that Gothic writers wanted to achieve. As there are different kinds of Gothic heroes, e.g. villains or women in distress, there should be a number of doppelganger types that would fit the character and the problem of their prototype. As was mentioned before, the main problem of the Gothic heroes is the fight of good and evil parts of their personality. Thereby the first type of double which corresponds to the need of illustrating confrontation is the opposing, of other, self. The opposing self is a very general type of double. As Rogers mentions, it may represent evil or good side of the personality, wicked or virtuous self, destructive or creative essence (cf. 1970: 62). The evil personality would represent the most negative and inadmissible traces of a hero. The good one, in turn, would attempt to bring balance back to the distorted self and outweigh the evil double. The wicked self usually serves as an infernal double, that is, the adaptation of the medieval devil fighting for the soul. Virtuous self, however, does not necessarily need to be an . It would rather represent all the good qualities that the hero has or could achieve if resisted the wicked double. However popular such tandems may seem, there are split selves who are not opposing. In some cases the doubles are able to not only peacefully coexist but even cooperate. If the self is split into two, it is deprived of the possibility to employ all the resources of the personality. Moreover, as the doubles are bound to each other because they represent two parts of one character, it is plausible to presume that they may even want to unite again. This means that created in order to help solve the internal conflict, the doubles, having performed this task, may try to unite again. However, it seems that the process of splitting the self is irreversible.

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Another type of a double closely related to the non-opposing selves is called by Rogers ‗the secret sharer‘ (1970: 41). He argues that the doubles may not only share same characteristics, such as appearance or behaviour, but possess and exchange such things as guilt. If the hero suffers from guilty conscience the best way to get rid of it is to separate this part of his persona. Thereby the hero may not only be relieved from the inner conflict, but also be able to further blame the guilt on the double. Thus, the double will not simply share the guilt of its prototype, but completely incorporate it. In this case, if the guilt is shifted onto the double, the hero becomes freer in his\her behaviour. That is, if the hero has committed a crime, the double will take the responsibility. On the other hand, the hero might need support and direction in actions, because he\she is still aware of the responsibility or punishment which may follow if the hero acts wrong. In this case the secret sharer may partly transform into the wicked double and prompt the hero to commit a crime, justifying it by various means. Another interesting type of doppelganger is the mirror image. From the point of view of psychology, the mirroring double is first of all a hallucination. Rogers characterises such way of creating the second self as ‗narcissistic‘ and egoistic (cf. 1970: 18). There are, however, two types of the mirror characters. The one, described by Rogers, is the ―exact duplicate‖ (1970: 19), literally, the picture for admiration of oneself. The hero like Dorian Gray creates such double to preserve his youth. Thereby, the classical mirror image serves to secure or present some characteristics that are important for another part of the self. The second type of such doubles is closely linked to projection. In this case the doppelganger serves as the representative of the good or bad traces of the hero. The projection onto the mirror character takes place for two reasons. Firstly, the hero needs to separate him\herself from, mostly, negative inclinations. At the same time, such double may mirror the qualities that the hero still possesses but is either unaware of, or unable to use properly. Thereby, the mirror image in both cases reflects certain characteristics of the hero. It can, however, employ them, both in order to support the hero, or cause his\her downfall. Thereby, there are a number of various doppelganger types in Gothic fiction. Their introduction and employment depend on, firstly, the essence of the inner conflict of the hero, and, secondly, is determined by the intentions of the author. The existence of the double in the story gives a signal that something is wrong with the hero: When the author portrays a as seeing his double, it is not simply a device or gimmick calculated to arouse the reader‘s interest by virtue of the strangeness of the episode but is, in fact, a result of his sense of the division to which the human mind in conflict with itself is susceptible. (Rogers 1970: 29).

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3. The Double Within and Without

Having identified and discussed the main types of doppelgangers, it is important to illustrate them with concrete examples. This will not only further the understanding of the doubles tradition in Gothic literature, but will also help to build analogies based on examples of male doubles in order to better analyse the female types. The analysis of male doubles will show the significant differences in the representation of men compared to women in Gothic fiction in general. Moreover, the nature of male doubles considerably differs from the one of female ones, which makes the contrast even more interesting. The main difference that needs analysis and explanation is the place of the doubles in the life of a hero or heroine. Further analysis will show that the male double of a hero is created by himself, either voluntarily or not, inside his mind or consciousness, and then projected either inside or outside his inner world. In turn, female doubles of both heroes and heroines are usually presented as a separate and antagonistic person.

3.1 Male doubles as the cognitive phenomena

Traditional Gothic always have a male hero, either antagonist or protagonist, who sets the gloomy and terrorizing for the story. Of course, it is first of all set by the author with the help of a haunted setting, suspense, supernatural and scary elements, but when dealing with doubles, it is them, who call the tunes. There may even be no female heroines present for the males to oppress, and the hero would then be totally devoted to his inner conflict. This conflict has been studied by many scholars, both psychoanalysts and literary critics, and most of them come to the conclusion that it is derived from the basic ideas about human psyche (see E. MacAndrew 1979 and R. Rogers 1970) that were popular in the 19th century. They claim that ―psychological evil‖, as MacAndrew calls Rogers‘ ―evil impulses‖, comes from within the person and thereby literally tears him into pieces. It is the man‘s mind where the conflict starts and then either ends or develops by acquiring external forms, such as for example hallucinations, delirium or the creation of a double. The way and reason men create such doubles is of great interest and importance for this paper. The classical example of the double created due to the split personality is Gil-Martin from The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner by James Hogg. His novel is well- known as one of the first introductions of the diabolic double. The author skilfully merges the sick consciousness of a wicked hero, Robert Wrigham, and the evasive doppelganger. It is up to

13 the reader to decide whether Gil-Martin, as the double names himself, is the incarnation of the devil, who tempts the hero, or an imaginary second self of Wrigham, which he creates to justify and approve of his crimes. From the beginning of the hero‘s confessions the reader finds out about the complicated inner situation of Robert. He is inherently malicious and embittered because of him having been raised by a single mother. Moreover, he is assured by Reverend Wrigham, his supposed father and spiritual confessor, that he is the chosen one. This means that whatever he does, he is granted God‘s mercy. Such radical belief of the no less radical Calvinist sect of course appeals to Robert as it allows him to violate all the possible social and religious laws. Although he does not break the law or contradict moral principles from the very beginning, the hero gradually advances beyond the conventional limits of behaviour or self-control. When Robert meets his brother George, brought up by the wealthy family of his father, he cannot and does not want to hide his hatred. Even though George tries to maintain a friendly relationship with his half-brother, Robert follows him only in order to kill him. Eventually he succeeds and mysteriously escapes the trial. The double enters Robert‘s life shortly afterwards. The reader is never told that he looks like, as he often shifts his shape: ...there were several times, while he seemed contemplating him, and trying to find out his thoughts, that his face became so like Mr. Blanchard‘s, that it was impossible to have distinguished the one from the other. (Hogg. The Confessions: 197)

To Wrigham he presents himself as Gil-Martin, and assures him that his friendship is a very special gift for only the chosen ones: ―...I am a being of a very peculiar temper, for though I have servants and subjects more than I can number, yet, to gratify a certain whim, I have left them, and retired to this city, and for all the society it contains, you see I have attached myself only to you. This is a secret, and I tell it you only in friendship, therefore pray let it remain one, and say not another word about the matter.‖ (Hogg. The Confessions:195)

In some way he echoes both Reverend Wrigham‘s and Robert‘s account of him being exceptional. He only roots this egoistic and destructive thought into Robert‘s mind and makes him more and more obsessed with his special place in this world. Robert decides that Gil-Martin is a Russian Czar, who was told to be travelling round Europe. This implausible and self- confident thought does not invoke any doubt in his mind as he is so sure of his own significance and should be accompanied only by kings. Whoever Gil-Martin really is, his ideas and interpretation of the Bible are disapproved of by the people of high morals, for example Mr. Blanchard. He believes that the mysterious stranger

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―is come for no good‖ and expresses thoughts too radical though appealing to Robert. The latter is unhappy that such a noble and clever person may be wrong, but after a lengthy conversation with Mr. Blanchard he agrees with him. It seems that to some extent Mr. Blanchard was able to influence Wrigham and make him reject both the stranger and his views, but as soon as the two men part, Gil-Martin is back again. Moreover, he is able to almost at once to persuade Robert that he is right, and the man, incapable of critical thinking and fascinated with the ‗Czar‘s‘ confidence, succumbs. Thus his second self has much more influence on him than other people. Gil-Martin always brings vicious ideas or suppression to Robert. After the talk with Mr. Blanchard, for example, he takes his shape and disapproves of Robert‘s conclusions, thereby making him adhere to his previous extreme ideas. In addition, he makes Robert believe that Mr. Blanchard deserves death for not agreeing with him. Before and after every vice or murder Wrigham commits, his evil double is there. He always directs Robert and bereaves him of any doubt or feeling of remorse. Moreover, Robert himself feels the great influence of his ―companion‖: But the most singular instance of this wonderful man's power over my mind was, that he had as complete influence over me by night as by day. All my dreams corresponded exactly with his suggestions; and when he was absent from me, still his arguments sunk deeper in my heart than even when he was present. (Hogg. The Confessions: 204-205)

By the end of his story, Robert is so overwhelmed both by the reasoning, supernatural ability of shape shifting and pressure of Gil-Martin, that he totally looses self-control and self- perception. He falls into some sort of delirium which makes him unsure whether it is Gil-Martin who commits all the crimes, or whether it is himself who is guilty. Robert blunts his conscience while Gil-Martin commits crimes in his name. But this state cannot last forever and, haunted by the feeling of guilt, Robert seeks solitude, but his double is still there. At one point, though, he leaves Wrigham to himself as if to show that he will not bear that. In his last remarks, the issue of Robert‘s split of mind becomes explicit and at the same time symbolic. On the one hand he cannot live without Gil-Martin and on the other – he cannot cope with his existence in his life and thoughts. It seems that the double is an integral part of Wrigham‘s personality (cf. MacAndrew 1986: 184), which is at the same time being rejected by his unstable self. Thereby his inability to decide what he really wants his self to be like makes Robert to commit suicide: Unable to resist any longer, I pledged myself to my devoted friend, that on this day we should die together, and trust to the charity of the children of men for a grave. I am solemnly pledged; and though I dared to repent, I am aware he will not be gainsaid, for he is raging with despair at his fallen and decayed majesty, and there is some miserable comfort in the idea that my tormentor shall fall with me. (Hogg. The Confessions:367)

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Thereby, James Hogg shows the reader that wherever the evil comes from, it is the man who either accepts and allots it a place in his soul and mind or rejects it. The problem of Robert was his essential weakness, malice and constant doubts. Such conditions never leave the mind untouched, and if it is weak or prone to misgivings, it will definitely fail. What happens to Robert is that he is trying to justify his violent actions or lay the guilt on someone else. As he is unable to find any sane person to assist him in his fanatic activity, he creates the double. Gil-Martin has two roles in Wrigham‘s life. First of all, he is Robert‘s own perception of himself. The chosen one, selected by God among many others, he is of course no less than a king – strong, influential and powerful. He is always right and has the authority to ―cut sinners off with the sword‖. Secondly, the double serves as a means of fighting with doubts, the inner voice of self-confidence that would always approve of Robert‘s actions. Due to his primitive and ill nature, Wrigham understands the Bible literally. While discussing it with other learned men he cannot find a compromise if he disagreed. He is very easy to persuade, but his inability to meditate on the discussion properly leads him back to his own beliefs. Thus, the presence of Gil-Martin allows Robert to be active, confident and act according to his convictions. His main problem, however, is that at some point Robert is unable to control himself any more. The great number of his wrongdoings makes him ponder over his actions and self. At this point he sees how far he has gone, incited by Gil-Martin, or rather himself. As he is unable to get rid of the double and to overcome this inner conflict, Robert decides that the only way to stop his mental and spiritual suffering is to commit suicide.

Another example of the Gothic novel in which the creation of a double is accompanied by shape shifting is the The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson. The narrator tells a story of the lawyer Gabriel Utterson, who had to investigate an uncanny event that happened to his friend and highly esteemed scientist, Dr. Jekyll. Throughout the story, however, he is more concerned with Mr. Hyde, a totally negative character that appears to have a close but mysterious link to Dr. Jekyll. Only in the end of the story does the letter of the Doctor shed light on the mystery. He describes and explains every detail of his experiment – an attempt to separate the good and bad sides of his self in order to cure his inner conflict. His mental inconsistency manifests itself in the struggle between his moral and conformist self, with the urge to fulfil his socially inacceptable and violent desires. On the one hand he would really love to exceed the bounds of social order for the mere joy of it, on the other, his social status and age preclude such a thing.

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Tired of being constantly tormented by the feeling of guilt and self-reproach, Dr. Jekyll decides to eradicate the source of the conflict – his other, negative self. In contrast to Robert Wrigham, who has created an imaginary double to blame for his crimes, Dr. Jekyll is fully conscious of what he is doing and what is supposed to come out of it. He expects, and in the beginning it really happens so, that if he creates his separate evil ‗twin‘, he will relieve himself of, firstly, his negative traces, and secondly, of the burden of the inner conflict. Whenever he feels the need to express his non-conformism, he drinks a potion, turns into Mr. Hyde and does not have to worry about any consequences of his nocturnal activity. Unfortunately, the Doctor underestimates the power of his evil double and forgets that although he has managed to separate the good and evil in his mind, the two selves still share one body. He has managed to create an external double, but the only sign of this process is the change in appearance. At first Dr. Jekyll feels younger and more energetic while transforming into Mr. Hyde, but after every transformation he becomes more and more aware of how ugly and loathsome his body is. Such significant alterations may be seen as a projection of inner monstrosity to the outer form (cf. Day 1985: 36): I have observed that when I wore the semblance of Edward Hyde, none could come near to me at first without a visible misgiving of the flesh. This, as I take it, was because all human beings, as we meet them, are commingled out of good and evil: and Edward Hyde, alone in the ranks of mankind, was pure evil. (Stevenson. Dr. J. & Mr. H.: 160)

Dr. Jekyll creates or rather releases a monster he is not really able to control. First of all he fails because the presence of a monster already signifies the deformation of reality (cf. Day1985: 34), whether it is an objective reality of the story, or the personal reality of the hero. He thinks that he has isolated the two sides of his self and thereby received two pure and concentrated personalities. If each, I told myself, could be housed in separate identities, life would be relieved of all that was unbearable; the unjust might go his way, delivered from the aspirations and remorse of his more upright twin; and the just could walk steadfastly and securely on his upward path, doing the good things in which he found his pleasure, and no longer exposed to disgrace and penitence by the hands of this extraneous evil. (Stevenson. Dr. J. & Mr. H.: 154)

Dr. Jekyll is misled by the idea that the parts of his personality are equal – both in significance and power. He believes he can compensate the misdeeds of Hyde by creating ideal Jekyll: It was Hyde, after all, and Hyde alone, that was guilty. Jekyll was no worse; he woke again to his good qualities seemingly unimpaired; he would even make haste, where it was possible, to undo the evil done by Hyde. And thus his conscience slumbered. (Stevenson. Dr. J. & Mr. H.: 165)

But he fails to notice on time that there can never be a purely good personality, that he is still the same Dr. Jekyll with his bad and good qualities and moods. 17

The second cause of his collapse is the belief that he has full control over the transformations. For some time this is the case, but as soon as Jekyll realises that the transformations are happening without him being aware of them, and that now he needs the potion to return to his normal self, it is too late. In some way he degenerates to the level of crazy Wrigham, who suffers from the unconscious alternating personality, and is on the brink of losing his real (or proper) self, but he is conscious enough to admit that he has to make a choice: Between these two, I now felt I had to choose. My two natures had memory in common, but all other faculties were most unequally shared between them. Jekyll (who was composite) now with the most sensitive apprehensions, now with a greedy gusto, projected and shared in the pleasures and adventures of Hyde; but Hyde was indifferent to Jekyll, or but remembered him as the mountain bandit remembers the cavern in which he conceals himself from pursuit. (Stevenson. Dr. J. & Mr. H.:170)

Although he is conscious of both his selves, he is no more able to control them. It has happened not only because the Doctor ran out of potion, but because he never really knew how to do this. In fact, it is these two sides of his personality that decide what is going to happen with the hero. As soon as they are enclosed in one body but artificially separated and confronted, they have to maintain the rule of the strongest. Thereby the conflict of the two sides of the one self, which did not have much influence on the body, is transformed into the battle of the two mutually exclusive individualities for one space (cf. Day 1985: 136). As Henry Jekyll is writing his final confessions, he has no doubt that he cannot avoid the transformation, which will have no reverse effect. He thereby considers whether he should not allow this to happen by committing suicide, or whether he should leave it for his winning evil self to decide. ...I go further: I, who sicken and freeze at the mere thought of him, when I recall the abjection and passion of this attachment, and when I know how he my power to cut him off by suicide, I find it in my heart to pity him. [...] Will Hyde die upon the scaffold? Or will he find courage to release himself at the last moment? God knows; I am careless; this is my true hour of death, and what is to follow concerns another than myself. Here then, as I lay down the pen and proceed to seal up my confession, I bring the life of that unhappy Henry Jekyll to an end. (Stevenson. Dr. J. & Mr. H.: 189)

Only by the end of his unsuccessful experiment does Jekyll realise that he cannot direct his other self. He has created a double in order to fulfil and control his vicious impulses but has ended up defeated by its strength. This example shows two important things: firstly, why the double is usually created, and secondly, how it acts. Dr. Jekyll, admitting the duality of human nature decides that he cannot live with it. He is tired of his negative side and sees the only way to get rid of it – to create a double. Thereby he separates and sets free the part of himself that his consciousness and feeling 18 of responsibility were suppressing. With his experiment Henry Jekyll ruins the classical Freudian triangle of the Superego, Ego and Id. He excludes the latter and at the same time disables the Superego. In its turn the double, or Mr. Hyde, gets full freedom and cannot be controlled by the Doctor. It is the potion now that plays the role of the Superego, but as soon as it is gone, the Ego, or Henry Jekyll, is helpless. He admits that Hyde is pure evil, but he forgets that evil has no limits, whereas the good is always bound to certain norms and taboos. Mr. Hyde finds no problem in being a loathsome creature and committing crimes, and it is the Doctor, who has to think about their consequences. Trying to solve, or rather get rid of, his inner conflict by bringing it to external level, he ends up in the same situation. The feeling of self-reproach and the problem is back, same as the diabolic double of Robert Wrigham. The inner conflict of Dr. Jekyll developed into the battle for both his mind and body. This conflict has originated in his mind and should have ended there. But as it was brought to the partially external level, it got totally out of control and caused the death of both in the end. Thereby, the creation of a double in order to escape the ―Other self‖ or to solve the inner conflict, will never lead to the desired result. The two sides of the human psyche are so intertwined, that their separation only leads to the exacerbation of the painful split and the mutual exclusion of each other, in other words, to the complete destruction of the personality. The two examples show that the male doubles were introduced to illustrate the inner psychological conflict of the hero. Usually a man, dealing with the double nature of his self would create a double, or the projection of his evil side, in order to consciously and directly deal with it. In both cases, though, the heroes failed. The doubles never left the realm of their minds and only contributed to the aggravation of the inner conflict. Thereby they perform the function of a destructive essence (cf. Day1985: 35) and drive their creators to committing suicide.

3.2 Female doubles as a distorted mirror of a man

In contrast to egocentric and godlike men (cf. Day 1985: 76), who are creating their doubles in order to suppress a part of their self, female doubles have other origins. Reed identifies two types of women in Gothic fiction: women in love, or vulnerable females, and destructive women (cf. 1975: 36, 44). These two types find their representation in the female doubles that directly influence male heroes. In this chapter the female doppelgangers will be discussed from the point of their connection to the heroes. Usually, they act as a mirror image of a man, increasing the significance of his good or bad qualities, or both (cf. MacAndrew 1979: 213). 19

In most Gothic novels the reader encounters fragile and vulnerable creatures that are haunted by the villains and need the protection of the . They are really close to the Medieval ideal of womanhood (cf. Reed 1975: 57) both in appearance and behaviour: they are pale and weak ―domestic ‖ (Ruskin cited in Deirdre 1987: 164), and incapable of any sort of action or opposition (cf. Day 1985: 18). There are, though, a couple of cases when a heroine is trying to resist the so called ―Gothic villain‖ (MacAndrew 1979: 44) and thereby acquires a role of his partial double. Wicked women, to the contrary, represent all the possible vices of humanity. Paired with the main heroes, they usually mirror their negative sides. Similar to male doubles in their devilish nature, female doubles still differ in origin. They usually embody the qualities, desires or urges of which the man may not be consciously aware. Moreover, they serve as a catalytic agent that prompts a hero not only to admit his vices, but to perform them. Their actions, basically, have the same effect as the ones of the male double – the hero suffers. The two types of women in Victorian literature, and in the Gothic in particular, are at once contrasted. Sometimes they even appear in the same story by the opposite sides of the main hero thereby representing his positive and negative inclinations. One such example is M. G. Lewis‘s The Monk, the life story of an unfortunate abbot, Ambrosio, who is seduced by a female . ―The holiest man in Madrid‖ (Lewis. TM.: np), Ambrosio becomes the victim of his unconscious sexual desires. He does not realise the urge for sinful actions before he encounters Matilda, his infernal double. The demon enters the scene just on time, when Ambrosio is admiring the Virgin Mary‘s portrait and is convincing himself that he is strong enough to withstand any temptations: ... Fool that I am! Whither do I suffer my admiration of this picture to hurry me? Away, impure ideas! Let me remember that Woman is for ever lost to me. Never was Mortal formed so perfect as this picture. But even did such exist, the trial might be too mighty for a common virtue, but Ambrosio's is proof against temptation. Temptation, did I say? To me it would be none. [...] It is not the Woman's beauty that fills me with such enthusiasm; it is the Painter's skill that I admire, it is the Divinity that I adore! Are not the passions dead in my bosom? Have I not freed myself from the frailty of Mankind? Fear not, Ambrosio! (Lewis. TM.: np)

As if accidentally, Matilda, disguised as a young novice named Rosario, comes to bring the abbot food and asks him to pray for his (or rather her) ill friend. She starts praising Ambrosio‘s eloquent speech, thereby appealing to his pride, but he rejects the praise and teaches the Youth, as the author calls the novice, proper behaviour. This time Matilda departs with nothing but to come back again for another attempt. Mirroring the unfortunate nun‘s case, Matilda passionately reveals herself to Ambrosio, pleading for understanding and forgiveness. Shortly before the abbot finds out that the young 20 novice is a woman, he severely punishes a nun. She was planning to escape with her lover and begged Ambrosio not to tell the reverend mother about her intentions. Although the abbot asked the reverend for mitigation of the punishment, as the nun had repented, he virtually sentenced the poor pregnant girl to death in the monastery . Racked with remorse, Ambrosio is trying to convince himself that he has done a proper thing. The abbot keeps doubting, though, and feels his guilt. Matilda, as if aware of his regret, invents a similar story, thus invoking memories of the recent case, and thereby avoiding punishment for her deception. Moreover, she makes him allow her to stay in the Abbey and to remain his friend, otherwise she will kill herself. Unable to resist both the gravity of her decision to either stay or die and the beauty of her naked body, Ambrosio flees to his chamber and decides to allow her to stay. He justifies his decision to obey Matilda‘s demand by making use of her wealth for the good of the Abbey, for she presented herself as the descendant of a wealthy family. In reality, though, his spiritual peace is shattered. All the rational justifications are nothing but excuses and cover of Ambrosio‘s secret desires. Even his dreams have become really disturbing, thereby revealing his unconscious wishes: Such were the scenes, on which his thoughts were employed while sleeping: His unsatisfied Desires placed before him the most lustful and provoking Images, and he rioted in joys till then unknown to him. (Lewis. TM.: np)

These dreams, though, have made him even more determined that he must not let Matilda stay in the Abbey. He would have carried out his wish if he had not been bitten by a snake in the garden where he was supposed to see Matilda for the last time. Disguised as Rosario again, she nurses him and expresses the utmost purity of her intentions: she basically speaks the way Ambrosio would like to hear it. She blushes when he calls her name in delirium, sings for him and vows her friendship and innocence. As soon as he has completely recovered, Matilda falls ill. She says she sucked the snake‘s poison out of Ambrosio‘s wound, and thereby is dying from it herself. On her death bed she confesses that she loves the abbot more than life and appeals to his pity by all possible words and means. She manages to seduce him by her helplessness, sickly weakness and death-agony and eventually engages him into intercourse. Ambrosio was in the full vigour of Manhood. He saw before him a young and beautiful Woman, the preserver of his life, the Adorer of his person, and whom affection for him had reduced to the brink of the Grave. (Lewis. TM.: np)

Matilda was successful in her actions as she was able to appeal to both Ambrosio‘s weak points: pride, which she was nurturing so effectively by all her vows and passionate confessions, and lust, which took its roots in Ambrosio‘s weak subconscious. Having presented herself as a 21 virtuous and typically ‗angelic‘ woman, the abbot‘s wicked double makes him forget his beliefs and betray his monasticism by breaking the vow of celibacy. Thereby she destroys the lifework of Ambrosio and has left him to eternal torment, but fulfilled his initial desires. However, Ambrosio‘s fall has only started with their intercourse. The feeling of remorse left his mind very fast and he accepted Matilda as an inseparable part of his life. Thereby he has accepted his wicked and lustful side. Moreover, he started acquiring her principles and beliefs and kept following her instructions, such as to conceal his guilt behind the image of virtue, and to treat people more severely in order to preserve his status. Ambrosio is really concerned with his reputation and he fears that Matilda, the product of his passion, sin and lust, would betray him. By acting and thinking in such a way, the monk concentrates more on himself and his image rather than his former faith and virtue. At the same time all these actions were directed to blunt his guilty conscience, the reason for which a man usually creates a double. As Ambrosio has already accepted his vicious double, the author cannot leave his hero one- sided and vicious, and introduces another part of his consciousness – Antonia. She at once evokes his highest appreciations and elevated feelings: The Monk retired to his Cell, whither He was pursued by Antonia's image. He felt a thousand new emotions springing in his bosom, and He trembled to examine into the cause which gave them birth. They were totally different from those inspired by Matilda, when She first declared her sex and her affection. He felt not the provocation of lust; No voluptuous desires rioted in his bosom; nor did a burning imagination picture to him the charms which Modesty had veiled from his eyes. On the contrary, what He now felt was a mingled sentiment of tenderness, admiration, and respect. (Lewis. TM.: np)

Thereby she is already portrayed as a being much purer and totally opposite to Matilda, although they share medieval femininity and fragility. Antonia symbolises the virtuous and pious side of Ambrosio that should still have remained hidden somewhere in his, blackened by the carnal sin, soul. Nevertheless, the start of their relationship may appear as a déjà-vu to the reader: before going to visit Antonia‘s dying mother, Ambrosio expresses vows similar to those that one could read before he was seduced by Matilda: ―She is lost to me!‖ He continued; ―By marriage She cannot be mine: And to seduce such innocence, to use the confidence reposed in me to work her ruin... Oh! It would be a crime, blacker than yet the world ever witnessed! Fear not, lovely Girl! Your virtue runs no risqué from me. Not for Indies would I make that gentle bosom know the tortures of remorse.‖ (Lewis. TM.: np)

Ambrosio‘s conscience is divided again: as long as his mistress does not know about him falling in love and does not give her wicked opinion on the situation, he is back to the purest thoughts and the fairest treatment of a virtuous young woman. But this does not last long: tormented by lust, the abbot is trying to seduce Antonia. In contrast to Matilda, who has always been mild, 22 complaisant and watching him with ―eyes filled with involuntary tears‖ (Lewis. TM.: np), Antonia is simple and ingenuous, and thereby only inflames Ambrosio‘s passion. Although Antonia represents purity in all respects, Matilda‘s influence has already distorted Ambrosio‘s understanding of sympathy and love. When he asks Antonia whether she loves him and she agrees, as for her the love of good people is nothing special, the monk interprets it in the same way as Matilda‘s affection – as a purely carnal desire. His attempt to rape the young girl is not crowned with success, as her mother enters the room. Ambrosio has to leave Antonia‘s house, never to be allowed in again as her mother has recovered and suspects his real intentions. This situation throws the monk into the wildest despair and brings him back to his two main concerns: his own reputation and lust. Matilda is perfectly aware of ―the object of [his] flame‖ (Lewis. TM.: np) and is ready to assist. She arrives just in time to perform the role of Ambrosio‘s ingenious evil mind. Matilda brings the monk back to rational thinking, cools his despair and arrives with the solution that would be the easiest to fulfil, but the hardest to accept for Ambrosio. She suggests using magic and tells him how she is able to use demonic powers. Naturally, Ambrosio scolds her for such actions and refuses to follow her into eternal damnation. But his mistress, as a properly wicked double, motivates him by both insulting his pride and appealing to his sexual desire (cf. Reed 1975: 44). She points out his narrow-mindedness in terms of religious taboos and reminds him of his ―love‖ and the possibility to easily reach it. This agreement could have originated in Ambrosio‘s mind but he would never be able to voice it; yet, Matilda acts as his inner voice and the monk yields. The last volume of the novel tells how ―the confusion of Ambrosio‘s mind now began to appease‖ (Lewis. TM.: np) as he hastens to reach Antonia. As he is approaching her house, the monk is reconsidering the ―enormity of the crime, the consequences of a discovery‖ (Lewis. TM.: np). He admits that Antonia‘s mother, Elvira, is the only person who may suspect him of violating her daughter, but his pride and self-confidence, so well developed by Matilda, leave him assured that ―his fame was too firmly established to be shaken by the unsupported accusations of two unknown women‖ (Lewis. TM.: np). But when he enters the house, the monk is confronted by the mother, who threatens him with ruinning his reputation. Ambrosio is frightened and ready to flee, but she wants everyone to witness his attempt. In a fit of anger and despair the monk smothers the old woman with a pillow and escapes undiscovered. Although concerned with his actions, Ambrosio is not remorseful. First of all, ―Impunity reconciled him to his guilt‖ (Lewis. TM.: np) and secondly, Matilda acts as his consoler: She represented that He had only availed himself of the rights which Nature allows to everyone, those of self-preservation: That either Elvira or himself must have perished, and that her inflexibility and resolution to ruin him had 23

deservedly marked her out for the Victim. She next stated, that as He had before rendered himself suspected to Elvira, it was a fortunate event for him that her lips were closed by death; since without this last adventure, her suspicions if made public might have produced very disagreeable consequences. (Lewis. TM.: np)

With such explanation his mistress is able to leave the monk with a fully clear conscience and remind him of his main goal – possessing Antonia. In this situation Matilda again acts as a wicked part of Ambrosio‘s mind, which always finds justifications for his misdeeds and encourages him to proceed with his initial intentions. Eventually, Ambrosio is able to decoy Antonia into the secret passage near the abbey and violate her. After he has reached his goal, he loses interest in her and feels only disgust. His ―Conscience pointed out to him the whole extent of his crime‖ (Lewis. TM.: np), and brings him into convulsive state as he does not know what to do: if he lets Antonia go, she would his crime, if he keeps her imprisoned in the vault, she would die. Ambrosio‘s conscience seems not yet totally corrupted and he takes pity upon the poor girl and is on the point of releasing her, but Matilda appears. Pursued by the officers of the , she makes the abbot flee and in order for his crime not to be discovered, to kill Antonia. As if forced by the gravity of the situation, but more likely by Matilda‘s admonition, Ambrosio stabs the girl and flees. Both the monk and his mistress are captured and sentenced to death by the Inquisition. At this point, Ambrosio is most of all concerned with his eternal damnation and death. He is tried several times by the Inquisition, although Matilda almost at once confesses her and his guilt. Ambrosio, in turn, never confesses, but loses any spirituality and virtue. In the moment of the highest despair, Matilda appears before him – in rich clothes and absolutely free. She offers Ambrosio to follow her example and gain freedom in exchange for the soul. His final hesitations are presented in the dialogue with a demon summoned for the monk. The abbot doubts whether God will have mercy on him and whether his soul is worth being saved before his death. The demon, or rather his feeling of guilt, is able to convince the monk that his crimes are so terrible that he should never expect salvation. At this point, Ambrosio yields and makes a deal with the devil. The devil rejoices for two reasons: firstly, he has won the soul of the most pious clergyman in Spain. Secondly, he reveals what crimes Ambrosio has really committed. Driven by violence and lust the monk violates and kills his own sister, Antonia and thereby his own mother Elvira. The roles of these two women may be interpreted from the Freudian point of view. Matricide, the same as patricide, is very close to the Oedipus complex, the realisation of which means the killing of an authority or super-ego. Thus, by killing Elvira, Ambrosio releases himself from any

24 opposition and constraint. When it comes to Antonia, who is considered as his double, she falls victim to his evil side, Matilda the demon. The great influence of Matilda on Ambrosio and Antonia‘s inability to invoke his mercy illustrate the force of evil in the human mind. The monk, prompted by Matilda but not instructed directly, carries out the crimes he would never before leave thought of. His fall is so rapid and uncontrollable, that it seems that as soon as vice enters his thoughts, it already possesses his whole mind. Similar to Dr. Jekyll, Ambrosio is too self-confident that he could never fall from his path of virtue and piety. Every time he reiterates ―fear not‖, this confidence betrays him. Thereby, already infested by sinful thoughts, the monk needs a double to maintain him in his beliefs, and the first one to come is Matilda. Her full support of his actions and encouragement of desires, which the abbot nurtured for quite a while, leave almost no chance for compassion for poor Antonia. The novel again shows the reader the power of evil, how easily it may take possession of the human mind and soul, and how hard it is to bear the consequences.

The female doubles are not always wicked, at least in relation to the hero they mirror. There are heroines that reflect the dominant features or essence of the Gothic villains. This does not mean, though, that they are not antagonistic to the protagonist. Such doubles may and may not cause the downfall of the hero they are paired with or perform various functions, but they possess a common feature, which Day calls ―masculinity‖ (1985: 143). In order to be as close as possible to their male double, female characters acquire features shared by them both. These can either exist on the general level of appearance and manner, or be present in such details as attitudes, speech, behaviour and aims. A striking example of such a heroine may be found in Uncle Silas by J. T. Sheridan Le Fanu. There are many female characters of various degree of significance in the novel, and the one who is completely out of the general circle is Madame de la Rougierre, a temporary of the main heroine and the one of her greatest fears. Maud Ruthyn, a seventeen-year-old heroine is telling a thrilling story of her life, directly connected with her evil uncle. Raised by her father in the remote patrimony, Maud ―enjoys‖ solitude and controversial stories about her father‘s brother. On the one hand people talk about his wretchedness, gambling and being a murderer, on the other, her father keeps defending his brother‘s name. The young girl is interested in such an ambiguous relative but has never seen him and has no idea whether she ever will. One day, though, she sees the portrait of a handsome man who appears to be her uncle and then meets him in person: A face like marble, with a fearful monumental look, and, for an old man, singularly vivid strange eyes, the singularity of which rather grew upon me as I looked; for his eyebrows were still , though his hair descended from his 25

temples in long locks of the purest silver and fine as silk, nearly to his shoulders. (Le Fanu. U.S.: 193)

As Maud‘s starts creating additional images and traits of the man, she is more inclined to share her father‘s opinion of his brother, but her feelings are still mixed. The mystery, under the veil of which the whole life of her uncle is concealed, thrills and frightens her. The same feelings Maud develops for the governess, whom her father hires to finish her education. The woman, no less mysterious and strange than the uncle, is invited by Maud‘s father on advice of his brother and is at once disliked by all the other women. Day argues that the main reason for such ambiguous treatment is her masculinity. For Mr. Ruthyn, Madame de la Rougierre is a proper governess because she is French, has good references and is ―so fully masculine‖ (1985: 111). For the females in the house, though, all her merits become insignificant before the background of her manliness. This main feature of hers scares Maud and makes her uneasy: Madame was on an unusually large scale, a circumstance which made some of her traits more startling, and altogether rendered her, in her strange way, more awful in the eyes of a nervous child, I may say, such as I was. She used to look at me for a long time sometimes, with the peculiar smile I have mentioned, and a great finger upon her lip, like the Eleusinian priestess on the vase. (Le Fanu. U.S.: 21)

Madame de la Rougierre, in her turn, treats Maud in quite a cruel way. She does not pay attention to any sentiments of the young girl, nor is she able to provide her with academic knowledge. Moreover, she keeps suppressing Maud and is trying to impose her will, beliefs and behaviour on the girl. Maud is unable to confront her governess and the only thing she learns from their relations is depression and fear: The fact is, I was altogether quiet and submissive. But I think she had a wish to reduce me to a state of the most abject bondage. She had designs of domination and subversion regarding the entire household, I now believe, worthy of the evil spirit I sometimes fancied her. (Le Fanu. U.S.: 24)

Maud sometimes wonders, how a woman, who drinks whiskey and takes laudanum, could become her governess, but Mr. Ruthyn simply does not care. The women in the house, however, care a lot and call Madame a devil and a monster. Her phantom appearance and behaviour strikes and frightens all of them. Poor Maud experiences many times the strange and scary actions of her governess: she can stare and remain silent for hours, she asks questions about her father‘s business and health, and scares the girl by warning her that death comes for everyone sooner or later. Most of all, Madame is concerned with Mr. Ruthyn‘s will, but does not learn much from her ward. She likes taking Maud for walks to some uncanny places, such as the nearby wood, the family vault or churchyard. During one such visit, 26

Madame reveals herself as a demonic and horrific figure, at least through the prism of Maud‘s imagination: ―...I am Madame la Morgue – Mrs. Deadhouse! I will present you my friends, Monsieur Cadavre and Monsieur Squelette. Come, come, leetle mortal, let us . Ouaah!‖ And she uttered a horrid yell from her enormous mouth, and pushing her wig and bonnet back, so as to show her great, bald head. She was laughing, and really looked quite mad. (Le Fanu. U.S.: 35)

A couple of pages later the reader finds out that Madame has made such an image to frighten Maud and make her wait at the entrance to the yard. She had to converse with Silas‘s son about the girl and thereby disguise the relation to her uncle. As long as a woman, even masculinised, remains in the sphere of women and performs her duties, she does not disturb the man. But when she engages herself in his business, she is directly confronted. Luckily for Maud, Madame de la Rougierre makes the mistake of ransacking her father‘s writing table, is caught and fired. Although the reader is not told what she was really looking for, her resemblance of Silas Ruthyn and the meeting with his son hints on their interconnection and common interests. After the unexpected death of her father, Maud, according to his will, is sent to her uncle‘s place to be taken care of before she comes of age. The girl finds uncle Silas strange but nice to her. He bears full resemblance of the portrait that she saw at home and thereby seems and close to Maud. Nevertheless, a drastic change comes to the scene when Maud meets her nightmare, Madame de la Rougierre, in her new home. She tells the girl that she was invited by her uncle to accompany her to France, where her cousin Milly is studying. Maud is really unhappy and tells Silas about her previous encounter with Madame. The uncle does not pay much attention to Maud‘s pleas. He supports Madame and believes her version of the story – the two women have never met before. He suggests that they spend as much time as possible together thereby securing his constant indirect control over Maud. In the same way as uncle Silas is nice with Maud when they meet, and Madame performs the role of a proper governess in public. When Maud‘s servant Mary Quince comes to visit her at their uncle‘s place, Madame becomes really positive and helpful. Nevertheless, as soon as Mary leaves, she returns to her wicked and cruel treatment of Maud. It seems that her gravity, mysteriousness and wickedness, which she does not hide from the young heroine, are the reflection of uncle Silas‘s mood. Maud often notices his delirious thoughtful state when he is alone, and starts experiencing it on herself when she refuses to marry his son Dudley. The marriage of Maud and Dudley would mean that all the testate estate should pass to her husband and thereby to her uncle. According to the will, though, if Maud happens to die, all her

27 inheritance should pass to Silas. Thereby the uncle has two ways of enrichment: marriage or death. Maud does not like arrogant Dudley at all and refuses to marry him, and this decision leaves her uncle no other option. Of course, Silas cannot arrange his niece‘s murder from the spot. He is already suspected of the murder of a man whom he owed a large debt. Thereby the only way he is able to approach Maud is through Madame de la Rougierre. When the reader first meets Madame, it is hard to tell whether her relation to Silas has anything more than just vested interest, but as soon as he himself is introduced, the reader can notice how close these characters are. At first, only general traces such as a ghostly appearance and the air of mystery unite the two characters. But as the narrative proceeds, there are more and more things shared by the two. It is not only because both Silas and Madame are wicked and seem scary to Maud, there are many small but significant details that make them so alike. Madame‘s addiction to whiskey, and also to laudanum, reflects Silas‘s habit of using lots of perfume and taking opium. The novel may be split into spheres: male and female, same as Victorian society. The border between these spheres cannot be transgressed, that is Silas cannot reach Maud in her sphere with all her maids and cousins, in the same way as she cannot come closer to her father or uncle. Madame is there in order for Silas to reach his niece. She appears in the background of Maud‘s reflections on her mysterious uncle and represents one of the ―phantoms in mortal shape‖ (Day 1985: 110), another of which is the ―not quite human‖ (ibid.) uncle himself. Thereby she is not only indivisible from the uncle in Maud‘s conscious, but also performs an important function for Silas. The fate awaiting most of the doubles did not pass over Madame. As soon as her mission in France is accomplished and she brings Maud home, she is killed by Dudley. It is not clear whether he did this because he mistook her for Maud, or whether such was the plan. At the same time, assisted by her servants, Maud is able to escape. Thereby she ruins her uncle‘s plans and establishes justice. Shortly afterwards uncle Silas dies ―of too much ‗loddlum‘‖ (Le Fanu. U.S.: 434). His death is significant, as in order not to be taken to court, and be exposed as a liar and murderer, Silas commits suicide. In a way, it is logical that he shares the fate of his double. Although in this particular case the doubles originate on the same side, that is, are equally evil and do not confront each other, the connection between them is too close for at least one of them to survive. It is the death of his female agent that in some way leaves Silas helpless and makes him take his own life. Thereby, the doubles are linked on the two levels. Firstly, they are alike in their appearance and manner of treating Maud. Madame mirrors Silas‘s ghostliness and represents his wickedness, which he is able to conceal; or rather which is ignored by Maud because her father 28 had such a good opinion of his brother. She is directly exposed to his cruelty when he refuses to send Madame away, leaving the young girl to the humiliation and malice of his female double. Secondly, Madame acts as his agent in situations and spheres which Silas has no access to: his brother‘s house, his will and Maud‘s stay in France. In order for his plans to be carried out, all the instructions have to be followed as precisely as if by Silas himself. In this case, Madame is the only person in whom Silas has confidence. The fact that Madame eventually fails to recognize the plot of Maud‘s rescue makes her useless for Silas. He, in his turn, cannot influence Maud any more as he has lost the link to her, his female assistant and double. As soon as his plot is revealed and Madame is of no avail, he loses any opportunity to gain Maud‘s inheritance and kills himself.

If there is a mirroring image of the same side as the original, there should be an opposite one. Aforementioned examples analysed the wicked women that represent the dominant vicious side of the men, and phantom doubles reflecting their evil originals. The last case to be discussed in this chapter is an example of the reverse situation: a female protagonist as a double of the male antagonist. Such a pair of characters is found in Bram Stoker‘s Dracula and is not obviously linked from the start. By the second third of the novel, however, the reader notices how closely connected the fate and role of such characters as Mina Murray (later Harker) and Dracula are. Before the actual analysis why these heroes may be called doubles and how they interact, it is important to discuss why a woman can rise to the level of not even a man, but a supernatural being – a . There are a couple of answers that Day provides in his study In the Circles of Fear and Desire (cf. 1985: 56): first of all, Dracula makes Mina equal to himself when he turns her into a vampire. In contrast to poor Lucy, whom he turns with no definite purpose, he bites Mina in order to revenge himself upon the men for their attempts to kill him and for the destruction of his new habitat in the old London chapel. As soon as they exchange blood (which he did not do with Lucy), Dracula makes Mina his double, ―inextricably linked to him‖ (ibid. 57), dependant but, at the same time, potentially equal, for she is not fully a vampire yet. Secondly, Day also highlights Mina‘s masculinity, thereby constructing ―a pair of androgynes‖ (ibid. 143): her and Dracula. He argues that the two characters are special, because Dracula, a Gothic villain, does not have the split identity, while Mina is ―the only Gothic character who is not a virgin‖ (ibid. 146). The fact that she is married puts her beyond the circle of innocent helpless Gothic heroines and allows her to be accepted into the men‘s one. She works her way to this equality even before she gets married and is infested with vampirism.

29

The reader first finds out about Mina as a fiancée of Jonathan Harker, the first unfortunate Englishman to meet Dracula. He writes tender letters to her and dreams of their marriage when he is back. Mina, in her turn, spending time with her friend Lucy Westenra in England, responds in the same way by entering her sentiments into the diary. She is a patient and devoted bride, a respected teacher of ethics at school, and seems to by a typical Victorian woman. Mina‘s behaviour, however, changes immediately when her best friend starts sleepwalking. She is staying with Lucy and her aged and ill mother in their house and is put in charge for keeping the young girl in her room. She is asked for this by her mother, as the old lady believes that sleepwalkers can climb roofs and cliffs and then fall from them. Thus she is entrusted with the key to Lucy‘s room and bears full responsibility for her friend. This gesture manifests firstly the trust, and secondly, the acknowledgement of Minas superiority in some way. Lucy has many suitors, a doctor among them, but it is Mina to guard her and take care of her sleepwalking. This superiority concerns not only women, but even Dracula himself. When Lucy falls ―ill‖ after being beaten by him, he comes to visit her almost every night. When Mina opens the curtains to check what is making the noise and is trying to break the glass of the window, she sees a huge bat. On encountering another woman, the bat escapes to its shelter in the old chapel: Between me and the moonlight flitted a great bat, coming and going in great whirling circles. Once or twice it came quite close, but was, I suppose, frightened at seeing me, and flitted away across the harbour towards the abbey. (Stoker D.: np)

In contrast with this occasion, when Lucy is left with her mother alone, as Mina has departed to meet her fiancé, Dracula summons a wolf to break the window and succeeds. Thereby, absence of Mina causes vulnerability of her friend and at the same time encourages Dracula. Mina‘s authority also expands on her husband. When she arrives in Romania to nurse him after the shock and to take him home, Jonathan entrusts her his diary which he does not want to read. He does not want to remember anything concerning his dreadful journey and it is Mina who will later possess and use the knowledge of his notes: You know I had brain fever, and that is to be mad. The secret is here, and I do not want to know it. I want to take up my life here, with our marriage.' For, my dear, we had decided to be married as soon as the formalities are complete. ―Are you willing, Wilhelmina, to share my ignorance? Here is the book. Take it and keep it, read it if you will, but never let me know unless, indeed, some solemn duty should come upon me to go back to the bitter hours, asleep or awake, sane or mad, recorded here‖. (Stoker D.: np)

The full name of the heroine, by the way, is derived from the male name Wilhelm, which means ―protector‖ or ―protected‖ (Behind the Name 2011). This is highly significant, as throughout the story Mina acts as the protector of Lucy, then of her husband, and in the end is protected by men.

30

Mrs. Harker, as Mina becomes later, is somewhat contrasted with her husband. In comparison to him, mentally unstable and always alert, she is calm, reasonable and has a good memory. Her in some way extraordinary mental capacities are highly praised by Dr. Van Helsing. At the same time, he never forgets that Mina is a woman, a Victorian woman, who needs to be protected: ―Ah, that wonderful Madam Mina! She has man's brain, a brain that a man should have were he much gifted, and a woman's heart. The good God fashioned her for a purpose, believe me, when He made that so good combination. Friend John, up to now fortune has made that woman of help to us, after tonight she must not have to do with this so terrible affair. It is not good that she run a risk so great. We men are determined, nay, are we not pledged, to destroy this monster? But it is no part for a woman. Even if she be not harmed, her heart may fail her in so much and so many horrors and hereafter she may suffer, both in waking, from her nerves, and in sleep, from her dreams. And, besides, she is young woman and not so long married, there may be other things to think of some time, if not now. You tell me she has wrote all, then she must consult with us, but tomorrow she say goodbye to this work, and we go alone.‖ (Stoker D.: np)

Van Helsing is not the only one who notices Mrs. Harker‘s masculine mind and feminine manner. Dr. Seward also witnesses both sides of Mina‘s self when he allows her to visit his patient, Mr. , whom she found really interesting to see. The doctor was surprised how nice and calm his patient was when conversing with the lady. Moreover, when his sick mind still let him to make a nasty comment concerning Dr. Seward, she was ready to suppress the aggression: She looked so appealing and so pretty that I could not refuse her, and there was no possible reason why I should, so I took her with me. [...] I thought that this style of conversation might not be pleasant to Mrs. Harker, any more than it was to me, so I joined in, ―How did you know I wanted to marry anyone?‖ His reply was simply contemptuous, given in a pause in which he turned his eyes from Mrs. Harker to me, instantly turning them back again, ―What an asinine question!‖ ―I don't see that at all, Mr. Renfield,‖ said Mrs. Harker, at once championing me. He replied to her with as much courtesy and respect as he had shown contempt to me... (Stoker D.: np)

This dialogue shows that Mina is not only able to converse with men on the same level, whether there is a madman, or a doctor, but also to interfere with the prospective quarrel. Alongside with her protectiveness and cleverness, Mina also represents the ideal of a devoted wife. In such a way she performs the proper role of a Victorian Gothic heroine. Sarah Stickney-Ellis writes that ―a high-minded and intellectual woman is never more truly great than when willingly and judiciously performing kind offices for the sick...‖ (1999: 54), and this is true for Mina. She nurses her husband and remains preoccupied with his peace of mind not to be 31 disturbed. She never tells, as asked, anything of his adventure, although she has studied it carefully while typewriting his diary for Van Helsing. When Dracula at last reaches her, he again brings Jonathan into psychogenic stupor and transforms his wife into a vampire. In her misery and despair, Mina is only able to think about her husband. When he comes to himself he is ready to act and pursue the Count, but Mrs. Harker is so distressed and afraid for Jonathan, that she makes him stay with her. This very passionate scene shows the real self of Mina: although rational and strong, she is still a fragile woman. She is a wife ready to sacrifice everything and devote herself to her husband: His wife, through her terror and horror and distress, saw some sure danger to him. Instantly forgetting her own grief, she seized hold of him and cried out. ―No! No! Jonathan, you must not leave me. I have suffered enough tonight, God knows, without the dread of his harming you. You must stay with me. Stay with these friends who will watch over you!‖ Her expression became frantic as she spoke. And, he yielding to her, she pulled him down sitting on the bedside, and clung to him fiercely. (Stoker D.: np)

Having recovered from the shock herself and noticing the blood all over here, Mina realises that she is becoming the same as Lucy and Dracula himself: ―Unclean, unclean! I must touch him or kiss him no more. Oh, that it should be that it is I who am now his worst enemy, and whom he may have most cause to fear.‖ (Stoker D.: np) She thinks that if Dracula decided to make her his kind, there is no way back and she is doomed to take the side of evil. At this point there are two males that express their expectations about this. Dr. Van Helsing is sure that if Dracula is killed in time, Mina would be able to come back to normal, save her soul and lead a normal life. Dracula, the creator of Mina, , has a different opinion: And you, their best beloved one, are now to me, flesh of my flesh, blood of my blood, kin of my kin, my bountiful wine-press for a while, and shall be later on my companion and my helper. You shall be avenged in turn, for not one of them but shall minister to your needs. But as yet you are to be punished for what you have done. You have aided in thwarting me. Now you shall come to my call. (Stoker D.: np)

In contrast to many other , he is the one who benefits from his double. He represents inhuman strength of both body and mind, most likely because he does not have any soul, and is thus able to establish his rule over Mina. In the same way as Silas, he creates an agent, who should assist Dracula in his plan to come back to his castle in unimpeded and, most likely, then should join his ‗brides‘. Nevertheless, this does not happen quickly. In contrast to the impulsive and fragile Lucy, Mina seems more resistant to vampirism. Moreover, the bond which Dracula has created between them allows Mrs. Harker to tell her friends what the count feels and hears. At first it seems really helpful as the men need to know

32 how they can best trace the Count and choose the right time to kill him. But they all forget about an important and very interesting point that Van Helsing makes: ―...If it be that she can, by our hypnotic trance, tell what the Count see and hear, is it not more true that he who have hypnotize her first, and who have drink of her very blood and make her drink of his, should if he will, compel her mind to disclose to him that which she know?‖ (Stoker D.: np)

This means that the link and information exchange between the two doubles is reciprocal. The means that Mina can use against the Count can at the same time be used against her. Dracula eventually succeeds and anticipates the events, thereby being able to escape the chase for quite a while. Mina is clever enough to understand two things: firstly, that she can no more be too close to the men as the Count may again find out about their intentions. If Mina can tell what Dracula is doing when she is brought into a trance by Van Helsing, there is no guarantee that the Count cannot control her sense organs whenever he wants. This shows his superiority over his female double and the human beings in general. The men are concerned with distancing Mina from them, as they see how much she wants to help and how great her suffering is. But she herself understands the complicated and dangerous link to Dracula and does not bother them. The second thing that makes Mina‘s life even worse than it already is, is the understanding that the more time the men lose in tracking the Count, the less time remains till she loses her humanity. At this point she is able to characterise her double: ―Then, as he is criminal he is selfish. And as his intellect is small and his action is based on selfishness, he confines himself to one purpose. That purpose is remorseless. As he fled back over the Danube, leaving his forces to be cut to pieces, so now he is intent on being safe, careless of all. So his own selfishness frees my soul somewhat from the terrible power which he acquired over me on that dreadful night...‖ (Stoker D.: np)

She draws an interesting type of relationship between them: although Dracula has made her a vampire to serve his purposes, as soon as he is safe, he does not need her. This shows that although he is able to control Mina‘s senses, she is still independent in both her actions and thoughts. This is also due to the great difference between them, the first part of which she explains and the second – represents. Dracula is selfish and remorseless, whereas Mina is the embodiment of modesty and compassion. However, she realises the danger of such a bond: she can never be sure that she will remain human and will not hurt her nearest. As Mina feels, and Van Helsing notices, that changes start overcoming her, she asks her defenders: ―When you shall be convinced that I am so changed that it is better that I die that I may live. When I am thus dead in the flesh, then you will, without a 33

moment's delay, drive a stake through me and cut off my head, or do whatever else may be wanting to give me rest!‖ (Stoker D.: np)

She says that it is easy for men to give their lives for a woman, as they are brave. But for a woman, it is unthinkable to do the same. However, she understands that if she loses her true identity and turns into a vampire, she will have no pity, and demands the same from the men, and they yield. This scene shows how strong Mina‘s character is. She travels herself and alone to bring her husband back home and nursed him, she was trying to defend Lucy from the mysterious unknown enemy, and she assists the men in tracing and fighting Dracula by typewriting their notes and records. And now, it seems that all this care and self-sacrifice are to be crowned with her death. Her resignation becomes more and more visible as she travels with Van Helsing through the forest. Mina feels that she is about to become a vampire, one of Dracula‘s servants, but this never happens, because she is not a complete double of his. To the surprise and to Van Helsing‘s joy, Mrs. Harker does not join the evil side. Even when the female come to her, she remains with the Doctor: In fear I turned to my poor Madam Mina, and my heart with gladness leapt like flame. For oh! the terror in her sweet eyes, the repulsion, the horror, told a story to my heart that was all of hope. God be thanked she was not, yet of them. (Stoker D.: np)

It was not for nothing that Van Hellsing told Mina that she ―must be our star and our hope‖ (Stoker D.: np), for as the men never lost hope in defeating the Count and his servants, Mina also did not leave them without her help. Compared to Dracula‘s, their initial aim was not the revenge, but the protection of a woman who had become dear to them. Mina‘s merit in this story is the struggle to remain virtuous and humane, not to become a double. From both sides, the protagonists succeed and are able to come back to normal life. Dracula completely fails for a couple of reasons. First of all, he confronts the four men, each of them skilled in a particular sphere of life, and they are all guided by the knowledgeable Van Helsing. Secondly, and more importantly, he fails because he is unable to make proper use of his double. He bites Mina to revenge himself and threatens to ―call upon her‖ (Stoker D.: np) when he needs her, but he never does. Although when in Transylvania, Mina is on the brink of turning into a vampire, the Count does not take advantage of her state. Day interprets the dénouement as the loss of the two doubles, two androgynies ―because they reflect the corrupted visions of masculine and feminine identity upon which they are based‖ (1985: 148). From the point of view of the relationship between the two doubles, this is partly true. Before starting to reflect Dracula, Mina impresses other men with her education, keenness of wit and determination to follow and protect her husband – the male characteristics and 34 functions. As soon as Dracula has established the bond between them, Mina gradually loses her masculine features. She becomes weaker, looses self-assertion and needs protection and moral support of the men. At the same time, Dracula, although a supernatural creature, which seemed to have overwhelmed the mortals with his powers and cunning, loses his invulnerability. First of all it is Van Helsing who knows theoretically how to destroy the Count and helps the men to remove the threat of the vampire from England. Dracula loses the battle on foreign ground but is unable to find refuge on his own, mainly because Mina is able to trace him. Having intended to turn Mina into his double in order to make use of her, the Count simply deprives her of her masculine qualities, and this action is reflected upon him. As soon as he creates his double, Dracula becomes vulnerable, because he shares his power with Mina. She is not his mirror, neither his projection, nor sharing self. Mina represents the antagonism of the two doubles that are created artificially: not because of the mental conflict, but through supernatural, which does not work. Thereby Mina is an unusual type of double, which does not directly mirror the characteristics of the original, but reproduces and distorts them through the prism of her own qualities. For Dracula, the act of turning Mina into a vampire is the manifestation of his power and manliness. By this he deprives Mina of her masculinity and leaves her to the care of the men. At the same time, the relationship of the doubles is disproportional as the Count does not acquire Mina‘s male powers. Moreover, both doubles become weaker, and as Mina fears for her soul and life as a human being, in the same way Dracula is taking precautions to save himself from his persecutors. Following Day‘s logic, if Dracula has no problems with self-determination or split consciousness, he does not need to create a double. He does anyway, and thus puts himself into a situation, typical for other analysed Gothic novels: only one of the doubles can survive, if any. He spends his powers on creating a mirror or an executor, which he cannot make use of, and thereby fails to survive.

3.3 External female doubles as original doppelgangers

In contrast to the male heroes, typical Gothic heroines are not prone to the problem of split personality; neither do they create a double to justify their actions or misdeeds. Day argues that this happens because the females are never fully conscious of their negative side or any external wicked powers (cf. 1985: 136). The roots of this peculiarity lay in the general image and representation of the Victorian women: a well-known ideal of the ‗angel in the house‘ dominates even in the Gothic writings. 35

On the analogy of the female doubles of the heroes, those of the heroines should be totally contrasted. This means that if the typical Gothic heroine is a weak woman in need of protection, her female double should be strong and independent. It is impossible to claim whether this presumption is right, because not much research was conducted considering the female–female double relationship. The analysis of The Jewel of the Seven Stars by Bram Stoker will show that although the female Gothic characters are rather narrow and predetermined by social beliefs of the time, their doubling takes place and serves special purposes. Many literary critics claim that all Stoker‘s later works were much weaker than Dracula. Nevertheless, The Jewel drew a wide response because of the two main issues: the depiction of a female characters and unexpected ending. First published in 1903, the novel was ending with the death of all main characters to the despair of the narrator. Such a cruel denouement caused a wide backlash of both critics and the public. As one of the main in the plot is the love story of the narrator and a young heroine, the late Victorian readership could not accept anything but . Thereby the edition of 1912 was ending with the marriage of the heroes and the brief remark about their happy family life. Such contrast in the endings has several explanations. The one relevant for this paper is the dilemma on what is more important: to follow the belief that the two doubles cannot survive, or to stick to the Victorian tradition that good women deserve marriage and happy family life. The significance of the endings will be discussed later in connection to the analysis of the text. What makes the novel most interesting is the perspective on the females in general and the female doppelgangers in particular. The novel is a story told by a lawyer, Mr. Malcolm Ross, who is in love with the young heroine Miss Margaret Trelawny. Her father is an Egyptologist and is trying to solve the mystery of queen Tera, an ancient sorceress, who was the first woman to rule Egypt. He is trying to help the Queen resurrect in hopes that she will share her immense knowledge. Little is known about how he is going to do this and Mr. Trelawny ends up wounded and brought into the state of a cataleptic shock. At this point Margaret asks the narrator for help and he is ready to do his best. It is interesting and unusual to read how a man perceives a woman, who may have or be a doppelganger of a mysterious and totally opposite character. In the best Victorian and Gothic tradition the reader is presented with the male view of a woman: a beautiful and fragile female in trouble: ―but the mastering thought was that she was in trouble and had called on me – me! My dreaming of her, then, was not altogether without a cause.‖ (Stoker TJ: np) The narrator, as a proper man, is ready to take care of the woman he loves and performs his best. Throughout the novel he points out the peculiar beauty of his beloved:

36

The clasp of the hand can mean a great deal, even when it is not intended to mean anything especially. Miss Trelawny's hand somehow became lost in my own. It was not that it was a small hand; it was fine and flexible, with long delicate fingers—a rare and beautiful hand; it was the unconscious self- surrender. (Stoker TJ: np)

The narrator pays attention not only to the appearance of Margaret, but also to her behaviour. The way she speaks, conducts herself and makes decisions while her father is unconscious, would touch any man, as in his eyes she is the representation of virtues, devotedness and mercy. The ―spirit of devotedness‖ (Dyhouse cited in Lerner 1978: 174) was a really important characteristic of a Victorian woman. Miss Trelawny is not only devoted to her father, of whom she does not know much, but is also ready to sacrifice her sleep in order to take care of him. The ―quiet air of patient suffering‖ (ibid.) is what makes her character so delightful and precious for the men in the story. ―…When they had gone, I felt that, except for the servants, I was all alone in the house, and that I knew nothing – of my Father or anything else; and a great longing came to me to have someone with me who could help me…‖ She paused. I did not like to say just then anything of how I felt. I looked at her; I think she understood, for her eyes were raised to mine for a moment and then fell, leaving her cheeks as red as peony roses.‖ [...] ―The poor girl flushed deeply as she answered in a low voice: ―I do not know. I – I have only recently come to live with my Father; and I know so little of his life or his ideas that I fear I can hardly judge in such a matter…‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

Margaret‘s ignorance of her father‘s business does not only make her more helpless but also adds the air of mystery to the story. Nevertheless, the fear of unknown danger does not prevent the young lady from nursing her father at night and from keeping watch over him together with the men. At the same time, the way she accepts the burden does not present her as strong or powerful in the eyes of the narrator. He rather feels sympathy and duty to support the woman: …My thoughts seemed to whirl with lightning rapidity, and in a few seconds a whole process of reasoning became formulated. I must not volunteer to be the friend that the father advised his daughter to have to aid her in her vigil; and yet that one glance had a lesson which I must not ignore. […] Would it not humiliate her to make her ask me twice? Humiliate her! No! That pain I could at all events save her; it is not humiliation to refuse. So, as I handed her back the letter, I said: ―I know you will forgive me, Miss Trelawny, if I presume too much; but if you will permit me to aid in the watching I shall be proud. Though the occasion is a sad one, I shall be so far happy to be allowed the privilege.‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

In her turn, Margaret shows the great extent of her self-denial, the ability not only to concentrate and deal with her misfortune, but also to take into consideration other‘s life and preoccupations:

37

Despite her manifest and painful effort at self-control, the red tide swept her face and neck. Even her eyes seemed suffused, and in stern contrast with her pale cheeks when the tide had rolled back. She answered in a low voice: ―I shall be very grateful for your help!‖ Then in an afterthought she added: ―But you must not let me be selfish in my need! I know you have many duties to engage you; and though I shall value your help highly – most highly – it would not be fair to monopolise your time.‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

Thereby she acts as every Victorian woman should – is grateful for the help but would never take too much of the man‘s time or attention. She is also aware of the limits the woman has to mind even at home. When the doctor wants to remove the of a cat, Margaret doubts whether she should allow this, as her father wrote in his letter that he did not want anything to be replaced or touched in his room. At the same time she is able to take rational decisions, evoked by care and the wish to do best for Mr. Trelawny‘s recovery: ―I don't know,‖ she said doubtfully. ―Father's instructions seem very uncompromising.‖ Then after a pause she went on: ―But of course under the circumstances anything that is to be ultimately for his good must be done. I suppose there can't be anything very particular about the mummy of a cat.‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

This passage shows that, despite her doubts and fears, the young woman is relatively independent. Although she moved in to live with her father quite recently, she is already able to manage the servants and the order in the house while the master is ill. The first reason for such behaviour is, of course, the destiny of a woman – to take care of the house. Secondly, as the reader finds out later, this trait could be attributed to her bond to Queen Tera. This link becomes more obvious with the development of the plot. For example, while watching her father at night, Margaret almost starts sleepwalking and faints. Her strange behaviour often coincides with the recurrent accidents happening to her father, and when the detective points this out to the narrator, the latter is confused. On the one hand he does not want to believe that the young lady in distress could be involved in the mysterious accident. On the other, he starts to pay more attention to both her appearance and behaviour. At this point the author provides a contrast between Miss Trelawny and a nurse that was brought by the doctor to take care of wounded Mr. Trelawny: ―...By comparison of the two I seemed somehow to gain a new knowledge of Miss Trelawny. Certainly, the two women made a good contrast. Miss Trelawny was of fine figure; dark, straight-featured. She had marvellous eyes; great, wide-open, and as black and soft as velvet, with a mysterious depth. [...] I heard an old gentleman at the picnic, a great oriental traveller, describe the effect of her eyes "as looking at night at the great distant lamps of a mosque through the open door." [...] Her hair was black also, but was as fine as silk. Generally black hair is a type of animal strength and seems as if some strong expression of the forces of a strong nature; but in this case there could be no such thought. There were refinement and high breeding; and though there was no suggestion of weakness, any sense of power there was, was rather spiritual than animal. The whole harmony of her being seemed 38

complete. [...] All these perfections went to make up a personality that dominated either by its grace, its sweetness, its beauty, or its charm. Nurse Kennedy, on the other hand, was [...] was firm and thickset, with full limbs and broad, strong, capable hands. Her colour was in the general effect that of an autumn leaf. The yellow-brown hair was thick and long, and the golden-brown eyes sparkled from the freckled, sunburnt skin. Her rosy cheeks gave a general idea of rich brown. [...] She had a snub nose—there was no possible doubt about it; but like such noses in general it showed a nature generous, untiring, and full of good-nature. Her broad white forehead, which even the freckles had spared, was full of forceful thought and reason.‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

The contrast shows how atypical Margaret looks. As if coming from the Middle Ages, when beauty of a woman was defined by whiteness of her skin, darkness of her hair and the size of her melancholy eyes, she strikes male imagination. In contrast, the nurse is a common earthy woman, who cannot boast of any special descent but is still able to carry out her duties of a helpful servant. At the same time Miss Trelawny possesses the air of royalty. This is felt not only because her wealthy father was able to give her good education, but also because she is the double of the Queen. This royalty becomes apparent to the narrator in the episode with servants. Terrified with the mysterious events in the house, almost all servants are leaving the house. Although this piece of news is painful and upsetting for the young lady, she is able to show great self-control and dignity. Her decision to let the servants go and pay them the full salary may be considered a brave one, or rather too generous if to take into the account a complicated situation her father was in. At the same time, her generosity regarding the faithful staff that remains in the house is more than fair. That is why when the housekeeper, a devoted woman, exclaims that only a princess could behave like that, the narrator happily echoes her: ―No wonder the house is like a King's house, when the mistress is a Princess!‖ ―A Princess!‖ That was it. The idea seemed to satisfy my mind, and to bring back in a wave of light the first moment when she swept across my vision at the ball in Belgrave Square. A queenly figure! Tall and slim, bending, swaying, undulating as the lily or the lotos. Clad in a flowing gown of some filmy black material shot with gold. For ornament in her hair she wore an old Egyptian jewel, a tiny crystal disk, set between rising plumes carved in lapis lazuli. On her wrist was a broad bangle or bracelet of antique work, in the shape of a pair of spreading wings wrought in gold, with the feathers made of coloured gems. For all her gracious bearing toward me, when our hostess introduced me, I was then afraid of her. It was only when later, at the picnic on the river, I had come to realise her sweet and gentle, that my awe changed to something else.‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

His reflections on the character of Margaret show that her appearance, although admired by the narrator, may seem a bit unusual and thus dissociating. From this point, the author start leading the reader closer and closer to the realisation that the young lady is directly linked with

39 the object of her father‘s research – the ancient Queen. The voice of relatively logical reasoning is the detective, who is trying to establish the link between the mysterious accidents in the house and both strange appearance and occasionally suspicious behaviour of the young mistress of the house. The detective shares his guesses with the narrator but does not sound convincing. What he does, though, is involuntarily establishes a link between Margaret and the mystery of Queen Terra: ―Miss Trelawny, who was in the room more than any of you – for she was in and out all the time and did her share of permanent watching also – did not seem to be affected at all. This would show that the influence, whatever it is, does not affect generally – unless, of course, it was that she was in some way inured to it. If it should turn out that it be some strange exhalation from some of those Egyptian curios, that might account for it; only, we are then face to face with the fact that Mr. Trelawny, who was most of all in the room – who, in fact, lived more than half his life in it – was affected worst of all. [...] The crux of the whole matter is Miss Trelawny, who seems to be subject to none of the influences, or possibly of the variants of the same influence at work. Through all she goes unscathed, except for that one slight semi-faint. It is most strange!‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

The fact that the young woman is not affected by the influence of the Egyptian artefacts manifests the fact that she is invulnerable to them and thereby somehow related. Of course this is strange, and this air of mystery around Margaret only moves her closer to the enigmatic Queen Tera. This case shows that men, when not directly engaged in the case of doubling, are able to trace its origins and build the logical chain of the events. At the same time, a woman regards it as inconceivable or does not suspect that her personality or character may be split. The more strange coincidences happen in the house, the further is Mr. Trelawny from the ideal Victorian woman she was in the beginning of the novel. Another striking example of her link to the supernatural is her unconscious knowledge or intuition. When Mr. Corbeck, her father‘s ―artefacts supplier‖, claims that the antique lamps, which they need to accomplish the procedure of the Queen‘s resurrection, were stolen, the young lady somehow knows that they are untouched: ―Secrecy is everything. The one thing I dread is that the lamps, or some of them, may be destroyed at once.‖ To my intense astonishment Miss Trelawny spoke out at once, but quietly, in a decided voice: ―They will not be destroyed; nor any of them!‖ Mr. Corbeck actually smiled in amazement. ―How on earth do you know?‖ he asked. Her answer was still more incomprehensible: ―I don't know how I know it; but know it I do. I feel it all through me; as though it were a conviction which has been with me all my life!‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

40

In fact, the nature of Margaret‘s knowledge is quite simple, although supernatural, and is explained by Mr. Corbeck. When they first discovered the tomb of Queen Tera and tried to explore it and thus got into the direct contact with the mummy of the Queen and the special setting of her burial vault, at the same time Mrs. Trelawny was giving birth to the daughter. The woman died and Mr. Trelawny came back home to find out that his daughter is the only dear he now had. Although he loved her very much, he still could not fully bear the loss of his wife. Moreover, the child never resembled her, but ―in both feature and colour she has a marvellous resemblance to the pictures of Queen Tera‖ (Stoker TJ: np). That is why he has sent her away to be brought up by other people, and that is why she is so closely linked to the Egyptian artefacts and the mystery as a whole. At this point it is already possible to claim that Margaret is Tera‘s double. Another fact that supports this claim is that the young lady has a cat with seven toes, same as Tera‘s pet and, moreover, same as Tera herself. Margaret, though, does not possess any extraordinary characteristics like those of her double. The only thing that strikes the narrator is a scar on her left wrist, resembling the place where the Queen‘s hand was broken off by the marauders. Tera‘s hand also deserves some attention, as according to both Mr. Trelawny‘s and Corbeck‘s versions of their adventures, it was the broken hand of the Queen that strangled the marauders in order to come back to her body. However, if the Queen, even dead, could operate her broken off hand in Egypt, not far from her grave, how come that Miss Trelawny is so identical to her? These supernatural events are explained from the point of view of the ―Ka‖, Egyptian term for the mobile soul: ―First there is the ‗Ka‘, or ‗Double‘, which, as Doctor Budge explains, may be defined as ‗an abstract individuality of personality‘ which was imbued with all the characteristic attributes of the individual it represented, and possessed an absolutely independent existence. It was free to move from place to place on earth at will; and it could enter into heaven and hold converse with the gods...‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

The conclusion that the narrator makes is not only striking and in a Gothic way thrilling, but dethroning any mystery of Margaret‘s duality: If the Egyptian belief was true for Egyptians, then the ―Ka‖ of the dead Queen [...] could animate what she might choose. In such case Margaret would not be an individual at all, but simply a phase of Queen Tera herself; an astral body obedient to her will! Here I revolted against logic. Every fibre of my being resented such a conclusion. How could I believe that there was no Margaret at all; but just an animated image, used by the Double of a woman of forty centuries ago to its own ends...! Somehow, the outlook was brighter to me now, despite the new doubts. (Stoker TJ: np)

41

The author also explains why Tera would possibly need a double – to be able to come to life again. Moreover, Mr. Trelawny sees nothing bad in sacrificing his daughter for the sake of the Queen‘s resurrection. At the same time, Margaret returns to her usual state of the obedient daughter ready to commit self-sacrifice for the sake of her dear father. The narrator strongly disagrees with Mr. Trelawny‘s decision but has to obey as only he can approve their future union. At some point it seems that the mystery is solved, the doubling took place because of the supernatural powers of the Queen-sorceress and not because of the psychological inner conflict as it would happen with the male hero. Thereby this case is significant on another level: the contrast of the doubles and its purpose. At first sight the case may seem similar to the relations of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, but the analogy cannot be built as in the case of men, these two personalities possess one body and originate from one mind, the split mind. In the case of Margaret and Tera, the women are firstly, separated by many thousands years, and secondly, they are not engaged into the fight for the body as the Queen has managed to preserve her own. There seems to be no conflict between the women at all, as Queen Tera is actually dead and Margaret is ready to do whatever her father says in order to help resurrect her. Nevertheless, there is a huge contrast between the characters. Margaret is a typical Victorian woman, whereas Queen Tera is, first of all, a sorceress or a witch Queen. In the essay Earth Mothers and , E. MacAndrew writes that the female Gothic figures are not torn or split in half. They are closely linked to the earth on the one hand, and are thereby natural, and derive their strength from it on the other (cf. 1986: 184). In both cases, Tera is a telling name as it is consonant with Latin ‗terra‘, which means ‗earth‘. Apart from the link to the earth, which may be supported by the fact that her tomb is located deep under the ground, Tera is a typical witch character. The contributes to her masculinity, because ―in ancient Egypt either crown was worn only by a king‖ (Stoker TJ: np) and magic practiced only by priests, as Corbeck explains. He describes the tomb of the Queen and tells how unusual it seemed to him and Mr. Trelawny when they discovered ―the White and the Red crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt – on the Stele of a queen‖ (Stoker TJ: np). Later, citing the inscriptions on the wall: ―Queen Tera [...] succeeded as the only child of her father, Antef. She must have been a girl of extraordinary character as well as ability, for she was but a young girl when her father died. Her youth and sex encouraged the ambitious priesthood, which had then achieved immense power. [They considered] transferring the governing power from a Kingship to a Hierarchy. But King Antef had suspected some such movement, and had taken the precaution of securing to his daughter the allegiance of the army. He had also had her taught statecraft, and had even made her learned in the lore of the very priests themselves.‖ (Stoker TJ: np) 42

he is fascinated that Tera was originally educated to withstand the priesthood by their own craft. Educating a woman on the same level as a man would sound impossible for the Victorian audience, but would be acceptable if presented in frames of the ancient society. Most likely, it would be acceptable because the king would be able to control his daughter, although more likely, he would not have any other choice as he did not leave a male heir. ―But the King had gone to further lengths, and had had his daughter taught magic, by which she had power over Sleep and Will. This was real magic – ―black‖ magic; not the magic of the temples, which, I may explain, was of the harmless or ―white‖ order, and was intended to impress rather than to effect. [...] She had won secrets from nature in strange ways; and had even gone to the length of going down into the tomb herself, having been swathed and coffined and left as dead for a whole month. The priests had tried to make out that the real Princess Tera had died in the experiment, and that another girl had been substituted; but she had conclusively proved their error.‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

The passage shows how far the equalization of rights and possibilities had gone in case of Tera. Already at a young age she entered the realm of supernatural and was even able to come back and fight for her life and recognition against priests. Moreover, Tera ―claimed all the privileges of kingship and masculinity‖ and depicted this in a very symbolical way on the walls: ―In one place she was pictured in man's dress, and wearing the White and Red Crowns. In the following picture she was in female dress, but still wearing the Crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, while the discarded male raiment lay at her feet.‖ The suppression of the male symbols by a female was, basically, unacceptable in both societies. For this reason her tomb was inscribed with the ―Nameless One‖ or ―Lonely One‖ (Stoker TJ: np), abandoned by everyone because she infuriated the Gods by her autocracy and excessive magic powers. Thereby, compared to Margaret, the Queen is her absolute counterpart. Even if she could possibly influence the young girl‘s birth and appearance, her way of thinking remains pure and typically Victorian. After having heard the story of Tera, Margaret expresses a very sentimental opinion of the Qeen‘s real feelings and purposes. She calls her a ―great and far- thinking and high-souled lady of old‖ (Stoker TJ: np) who had a ―dream of a love that might be; a love that she felt she might, even under new conditions, herself evoke. The love that is the dream of every woman's life‖ (Stoker TJ: np). In contrast to the male perspective that is presented to the reader throughout the whole story, the sweetly naive and sincere speech of Margaret seems really touching. Moreover, she may seem quite persuasive both because, as she claims, ―I am a woman, and I know a woman‘s heart‖ (Stoker TJ: np), and because she is Tera‘s double. The men are delighted and proud as there could be nothing more proper to think and say from the point of view of a real woman, ―so preoccupied with sentimental feelings‖ (Hamerton cited in Deirdre 1987: 17).

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Nevertheless, although Mr. Trelawny has always believed that Tera is a ―wondrous woman‖, he doubts that a creature of such knowledge and powers would use them only to satisfy her sentiments: ―Margaret has given us the true inwardness of the feeling of the other Queen!‖ [...] ―For my own part I sincerely hope she is right; for in such case it will be a joy, I am sure, to all of us to assist at such a realisation of hope. But we must not go too fast, or believe too much in our present state of knowledge. The voice that we hearken for comes out of times strangely other than our own; when human life counted for little, and when the morality of the time made little account of the removing of obstacles in the way to achievement of desire. We must keep our eyes fixed on the scientific side, and wait for the developments on the psychic side...‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

The male perspective again draws a line between Margaret and the Queen, showing that they do not have anything in common but appearance. At the same time, when she shows the narrator her birthmark, the scar on the same wrist as the one broken from Tera‘s hand, she is proud: ―The pride that has faith; the pride that is born of conscious purity; the pride of a veritable queen of Old Time, when to be royal was to be the first and greatest and bravest in all high things.‖ (Stoker TJ: np) Although admiring his future wife, the narrator grows more and more concerned with the state of her mind, as he starts noticing that she abstracts away from the reality and seems not to care about him or even her father. Moreover, her emotions become unnatural, at least for the ―angelic‖ woman that the narrator is going to marry as soon as the experiment with Tera‘s resurrection is over: ―...in one of those fits of abstraction which had of late come upon her; but on hearing the sound, and seeing Silvio's violent onslaught, she seemed to fall into a positive fury of passion. Her eyes blazed, and her mouth took a hard, cruel tension which was new to me...‖ ―I was beginning to doubt Margaret! [...]Margaret was changing! [...]Now she was generally distraite, and at times in a sort of negative condition as though her mind – her very being – was not present. [...] I never knew whether the personality present was my Margaret – the old Margaret whom I had loved at the first glance – or the other new Margaret, whom I hardly understood, and whose intellectual aloofness made an impalpable barrier between us.‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

The narrator does not perceive Margaret‘s behaviour as mystical or strange, he rather cares that it is inappropriate, especially for a future wife. He is discouraged by the lack of tenderness that she used to lavishly endow him, by her coldness and silence. At this point he starts analysing Margaret‘s person from the very beginning. The author thickens the net of suspense and uncanny by introducing the narrator‘s conjectures. He even assumes that Tera might be in full possession of Margaret‘s body. He starts to reflect on the astral body of the Queen and her ability to move though time and space. His

44 thoughts seem the most irrational and desperate of all the men involved into the experiment. The narrator needs these ideas in order to calm himself and stop thinking of drastic changes taking place in Margaret‘s mind and soul. He is also able to conclude an important point concerning the relationship of the doubles – Margaret‘s dual existence. Malcolm starts comparing the two women: the cruel and powerful Queen and the fragile sentimental young lady, who is basically unaware of the risk she is taking. He is afraid that the resurrection of the Queen will kill Margaret, or that she will never be able to come back to normal because of their strange bond. At the same time the narrator raises the question of how far Tera would go. He speculates on this point and ends up merging Margaret‘s ideas about the lonely loving woman and Corbeck‘s stories about violent deaths of marauders, who tried to steal Tera‘s hand or jewels, and is in some way scared. Mr. Trelawny, however, is more concerned with the experiment. With scientific interest and hopes for sensation, he insists on the attempt of the Queen‘s resurrection, although he is aware of the sacrifice he should make: ―A woman's life!‘ What is a woman‘s life in the scale with what we hope for! Why, we are risking already a woman‘s life; the dearest life to me in all the world, and that grows more dear with every hour that passes. We are risking as well the lives of four men; yours and my own, as well as those two others who have been won to our confidence...‖ (Stoker TJ: np)

He believes that, if brought to life, Tera will reveal the secrets of the universe, contribute to scientific progress and understanding of history. Moreover, when the narrator asks him about his daughter‘s duality, he replies that ―If in addition there be the spirit of that great and wondrous Queen, then she would be no less dear to me, but doubly dear!‖ (Stoker TJ: np). Thereby he, as a man, does not see any problems with his daughter have a dual consciousness or personality. This is because he does not see the perspective inner conflict, or is rather concerned that women do not suffer from one. Mr. Trelawny‘s attitude shows that, in contrast to the male doubles, the females are able to enclose both sides of their self or, in this case, two different spirits or personalities in one body. He believes that they would rather contribute to each other than cause destruction of the body or soul of his daughter. The narrator, however, notices that behind Margaret‘s determination to risk her life for the sake of her father‘s experiment there concealed fear and hesitation: ―...I could see that she suffered – suffered horribly. There was in her eyes a haunted look...‖ (Stoker TJ: np). This uncertainty seems to the narrator more natural and humane than Tera‘s vigour and determination to reach immortality. Nevertheless, the difference between the two women is not only due to their unlike characters and status, but it is created by the men themselves. In the beginning of the novel the

45 narrator thinks that ―there might be some shock to a woman's mind in matters of apparent mystery‖ (Stoker TJ: np) if Margaret, a weak and sensitive woman, is involved into the experiment with the resurrection of the Queen. At the same time, her double is ―a woman of extraordinarily subtle mind‖, calculating and cunning. Although the contrast is apparent, the doubles are not mutually exclusive in the perspective of men. Such perception of the two women may be explained by the supposition, that Tera, a witch and a masculine figure, is not accepted by the men as a woman. There are two reasons for this. Firstly, as a witch, the Queen manipulates Margaret, her double, for example in the scene with her cat Silvio when the narrator got frightened by her behaviour. Silvio attacks the mummy of Tera‘s pet, and Margaret, instead of reacting calmly as she usually does, gets violent. Moreover, Tera also indirectly manipulates men, especially Mr. Trelawny. Even if his discovery of her tomb was accidental, his attempts to resurrect her are caused by the Queen‘s description of her merits and achievements, and his belief that she will be eager to share her knowledge with him. Secondly, Tera is not perceived as a woman by Mr. Trelawny and Corbeck. While planning her resurrection, they are concerned with her knowledge and skills. Although Corbeck pays attention to her kingly appearance on the pictures, Mr. Trelawny is concentrated on the information and mysteries of the past she may reveal if alive: ―...Not only history can be set right, and the teachings of science made veritable from their beginnings; but we can be placed on the road to the knowledge of lost arts, lost learning, lost sciences, so that our feet may tread on the indicated path to their ultimate and complete restoration. [...] if her powers and the restoration of them prove to be what we expect, why, then we may yet achieve a knowledge beyond what our age has ever known – beyond what is believed today possible for the children of men. If indeed this resurrection can be accomplished, how can we doubt the old knowledge, the old magic, the old belief! [...] Oh, what possibilities are there in the coming of such a being into our midst!.. (Stoker TJ: np)

He is more concerned that ―her memory was unimpaired‖, as the knowledge it retains is her main value. He is ready to adhere to any possible actions and experiments to gain this information, even to put at stake his own and his daughter‘s life. Not all, however, share his optimism or rather goal. The doctor is more interested in the physiological phenomenon of her survival and the investigator – in solving the mystery. Margaret, in her turn, accepts Tera first of all as a woman. When the men start unrolling her mummy, the young lady is in distress as the men are going to see the Queen, even dead, naked. The argument with her father is a short excursus to the ancient culture as he explains that there were only male doctors or embalmers and they are not much different from them, as they have purely scientific interest.

46

Again, Mr. Trelawny emphasises that everything is done for the sake of science. When the Queen is unwrapped, thought, the company is stricken first by the richness of her dress and linen. It seems to be a wedding dress and Margaret is terrified as her wedding is scheduled shortly after the experiment is done. This is another link between the doubles – it seems that Tera was planning the same long before. It also possible to presume, that she even guided Margaret into her future marriage, but this fact is never proven in the novel. At last, after the mummy is unwrapped, the narrator can ascertain the likeness of his beloved and the Queen himself. Moreover, he partly reveals the intention of the author, he tells about the reason why the doppelgangers are introduces: ―the startling likeness between Margaret and the mummy, intensified by her own extraordinary pallor, heightened the strangeness of it all.‖ Thereby, the link between the women is created to create an uncanny event and contribute to Gothic atmosphere. Together with the general atmosphere of the novel, the ending is the culmination of its Gothic essence. As was mentioned before, the novel has two editions with two different endings. They are both significant for this paper as the dénouements not only release the tension of so skilfully presented mystery, but also signify the place of the doubles in lives of each other and in Victorian society in general. In both variants Queen Tera does not resurrect. Although the attempt is made and magic seems to be going on, her body turns to dust and the Jewel appears instead of her heart. The ending of the first edition is tragic: all the characters, except the narrator, die, and there are two explanations to this. Firstly, it shows that science is unable to solve the mystery of ancient civilizations. Modern people, believing that they are able to perform actions of God or of the godlike sorceress, simply fail. However, it is possible to state that Tera‘s soul was released, as the narrator saw something white escaping the sarcophagus together with lots of smoke and fumes, it just did not reach its goal. Secondly, the men die as the executives of Tera‘s will as she does not need them anymore, and the two women die because they are doubles. Stoker, whether aware of the folklore belief that two doubles cannot exist in one reality or live simultaneously, or not, follows this tradition. The death of them both may be explained if based on the previous supposition that these characters are not mutually exclusive. This means that, although opposite and contrasted, the women can exist or live at the same time and in the same place. It is arguable, however, whether Tera really lives. Her mummy can hardly be called a living being although it is so well-preserved that it looks alive: Only the face was then to be seen. This was more startling even than the body, for it seemed not dead, but alive. The eyelids were closed; but the long, black, curling lashes lay over on the cheeks. The nostrils, set in grave pride, seemed to 47

have the repose which, when it is seen in life, is greater than the repose of death. The full, red lips, though the mouth was not open, showed the tiniest white line of pearly teeth within. [...] This woman – I could not think of her as a mummy or a corpse – was the image of Margaret as my eyes had first lit on her. (Stoker TJ: np)

If in general her physical presence is unquestionable, as the mummy is there, in one room with Margaret, her ―astral soul‖ must be in the sarcophagus. As soon as it is released, it is supposed to come back into the body and revive it. Most likely, this is not the case as the Queen‘s body crumbles to dust. Even if it was, though, the death of the doubles is unavoidable because the bond between them is too close. On the other hand, narrator‘s suspicion, that Tera‘s soul inhabits Margaret‘s body may be true: ...whatever power of the Sorceress had might have been exercised over the dead mother, and possibly the dead child. The dead child! Was it possible that the child was dead and was made alive again? Whence then came the animating spirit – the soul? [...]. In such case Margaret would not be an individual at all, but simply a phase of Queen Tera herself; an astral body obedient to her will! (Stoker TJ: np)

In contrast to the male doubles like Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, who share one body, but are mutually exclusive parts of the self, the females share one soul, and its feeble attempt to come back from Margaret into Tera causes their death. The second edition of the novel presents the reader with the happy ending. No one dies except for the Queen, or, better to say, she does not resurrect. Her death may also be interpreted from the two perspectives. Firstly, there is no place for her in the modern society. The Queen, described as a masculine figure and coming from the ancient society very different from the one she is supposed to be brought in, would not have any place in it. She is not even perceived as a woman, the only thing that interests men is her knowledge and memory. Moreover, she is a ―destructive woman‖ (Reed 1975: 57) ready to kill her enemies or anyone who dares to ruin her plans of resurrection. On the other hand, she is a double of Margaret and thereby has to share the existential space with her. If the author had to choose which woman should survive, he would definitely prefer Margaret, as she represents the ideal Gothic heroine and Victorian woman. She is bound with the supernatural, her life is at stake, and at the same time she is devoted to her father and ready for self-sacrifice for the good of humanity, in the same way as Mina in Dracula. Thereby the contrast between the two women, emphasised by the prism of the male perspective, shows how closely their fates are intertwined. In both editions of the novel, the author reaches his goal in creating the highest possible tension before the of the story and at the same time supports the tendency that both doubles never survive. Although the causes for 48 supporting this tradition may be different, the general conclusion shows that if the doubles look identical, this is the only characteristic which they share. Female doubles are antagonistic in the same way as the male doubles, but their significant difference lays in the fact that they are not mutually exclusive, because they do not represent the two sides of one personality. In this case, they represent two understandings of the role of a woman in the Victorian society: the ‗proper‘ wife Margaret and the feministic unacceptable Queen Tera. Although male perspective influences both their depiction and significance, the relation between the two doubles is also based on the supernatural bonds. This interrelation makes them different from the doubles created because of the inner conflict. Thus, two females are more likely to be illustrious for some social issues rather than mental ones.

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4. The Comparative Perspective on the Female Doppelgangers

The analysis of the main illustrations of the doubling in Gothic fiction allows proceeding with the analytic summary of the material. The chapter will be devoted to the identification of the general patterns in introducing female doppelgangers, and to the definition of their roles and functions in the story. This will include the general tradition of depicting good and evil sides of a man though female characters, the way of linking the related characters and the integration of the doubles in social context.

4.1 The Traditional Female Doubles and Their Role in the Early Gothic

Talking about the Early Gothic writings, it is important to remember its link to the Middle Ages. Not only are the female types and setting in Gothic taken from this period (cf. Reed 1975: 57), but also the construct of the psychological conflict resembles the plot of psychomachia. This process, performed in morality plays through the good and bad angels, acquires more modern forms and moves from the external confrontation of the two forces to the internal conflict of one personality. The hero, torn by the split consciousness, projects the images of the confronting parts of his self on other characters. This process creates the first tandem of doubles. On the example of The Monk it is possible to see the ―extreme opposites in female figures‖ (MacAndrew 1986: 185). As traditional doubles, the women are contrasted and indirectly confronted. Matilda, a ―pious girl‖, who turns out to be an ―imperious witch‖ and ends up revealing herself as a demon, is Ambrosio‘s alter ego (cf. Day 1985: 124). She approaches him as cautiously as possible, in the same way as the lustful desires arise in his mind. As soon as Matilda manages to engage Ambrosio into the intercourse, sinful but desired by the monk, she attains the role of an ―evil seductress‖ (MacAndrew 1986: 185). She is able to not only seduce the doubting cleric, but also to influence his decisions and support his misdeeds. Matilda appears because Ambrosio‘s faith is weakened by lust, and is summoned by the devil to cause his eternal damnation. Antonia, although introduced much later in the novel, signifies the virtues that a man should have, but falls victim of Ambrosio‘s lust and violence. In fact, the monk is also ―the victim of his own passions and of the crimes he commits‖ (MacAndrew 1986: 185). Matilda does not eliminate Antonia directly, she leaves it to Ambrosio so that he can manifest which side he has chosen. Every time Ambrosio hesitates whether he should commit the rape of Antonia, Matilda is there to encourage his actions. She assists him in all possible ways, whether acceptable or not.

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She uses magic to make Antonia fall asleep so that she would not resist Ambrosio‘s attempts. Matilda teaches him to lull his conscience and thus performs the role of his projection. She acts as a distorted mirror of Ambrosio, reflecting his most negative and darkest side. Matilda serves as the way to find an excuse for his behaviour and to nurture his vices such as pride and lust. Antonia, in her turn, represents the virtues that the monk has lost. She is innocent and honest, loving and caring. The young girl reminds the monk of Virgin Mary whom he used to worship, but now he sees only the object of his desire in both of them. Although violent and powerful, Ambrosio would not be able to violate Antonia without the help of Matilda. In this way the witch shows her indirect link to Ambrosio‘s virtuous double. She also deprives the monk of any further link to the good and repentance by making him kill Antonia. The act of killing the innocent girl symbolises Ambrosio‘s victory over his positive side. He is now left with only one double – the wicked woman, or rather a demon. Thus there is only one mirroring character left in the story – the servant of the devil. After such an outcome of the symbolical psychomachia, the role of Matilda is fulfilled on two levels. Firstly, she won Ambrosio‘s soul as in the end he sells it to the devil to escape the execution. Secondly, she acted as a proper double not allowing her counterpart to influence the hero and, in the end, eliminating her. Thereby, the two female doppelgangers of Ambrosio represent the two sides of the hero‘s self – the good and the bad one. Acting as separate characters, they are able to influence him in order to outweigh each other. Although indirectly, the two women are confronting each other in order to dominate over one person. This is analogous to the male doubles, for example in case of Mr. Jekyll‘s and Dr. Hyde‘s fight for one body, or like Wrigham, who lacks a positive double and thereby is not prone to much suffering and doubts compared to Ambrosio.

A partly contradictory example of the interconnection of the doubles is the relation between Silas and Madame de la Rougierre in Uncle Silas. Although the novel was written almost half a century later, one of its characters still bears the traces of the infernal double close to Matilda. Madame, same as the wicked double from The Monk, performs the role of the mirror of the main antagonist. She is, however, not a double of Maud and thereby the young girl‘s fate is not completely dependent on this woman, but rather on her uncle. The main relation in this novel is the same as of Matilda and Ambrosio – the reflection of the negative traces of a man by a female double. Madame, however, does not simply mirror Silas, but acts as the executive of his will. She does not have any direct psychological influence on him, but he is dependent on her success in controlling Maud. Thus, their relationship and influence is not one-sided. It is arguable, though, which of the two is more dependent. On the 51 one hand Madame is told by Silas to watch and manipulate Maud, and, on the other Silas is unable to influence his niece without Madame. Thereby, Madame performs a role of a mediator in the complex relationship of Silas and his niece. This mediation is not limited to words and attitudes, but goes further to the level of actions. Although paired with Silas, she does not reflect his inner conflict, but rather his wicked inclinations. Moreover, Silas is aware of his negative sides and thus does not unconsciously project his vices on Madame. What makes him create a double is his passivity and inability to directly act himself. In order to perform Silas‘s tasks, Madame, as a double, needs a new quality – masculinity. This trace becomes very popular in the depiction of active doubles in later Gothic works. If Matilda engages her femininity in order to seduce Ambrosio, Madame has to employ male powers to control and suppress Maud. Her manliness does not only manifest itself in her behaviour, but also in her appearance. The character so closely linked to the main antagonist has to share more obvious qualities of the person she mirrors so that she could be called a double. Thereby a female double, which stands on the same side with the antagonist and acts as his active representative in the life of the main heroine, requires a close formal link to the person it mirrors. In case of Madame, she possesses characteristics common with Silas on two levels: she looks like a man and behaves like a man. Her role as a woman or governess, thus, is moved to the background, and her main goal is fulfilling the function of a double – adequately mirroring and representing the original character. Another trace of Madame is infernality. In contrast to Matilda, it is directed on Maud only. In fact, the young heroine admits that it is her own imagination which is drawing the scary picture of her governess rather than any supernatural powers. However, the unpleasant air of mystery surrounds not only Madame, but Silas as well. Maud‘s uncle is very reserved and taciturn, and sometimes it seems that it is Madame who does the talking for both. In this case she does not only mirror Silas, but transfers his attitudes and intentions to his niece. Infernality, however, remains the prerogative of female characters in both cases. If compared to Gil-Martin, who may be also called a devilish double, as he appears from nowhere and causes Wrigham‘s sinful downfall, the characters of the two women express their infernality directly. Matilda has a book of dark magic and summons , and Madame is talking about her powers over the dead. Thereby, the female doubles in these cases represent the long-lasting tradition of introducing evil as a separate character. Their functions, however, may differ and depend on the character of the hero they mirror. In case of Ambrosio, who is torn by the inner conflict, Matilda is introduced to catalyze his evil inclinations. Madame de la Rougierre, in her turn, not only 52 mirrors and symbolises Silas‘s evil nature, but also serves as the executive of his misdeeds thereby compensating for his actual passivity. Apart from the aforementioned functions of these doubles, their main purpose in the story is bringing about hero‘s downfall. If Matilda succeeds to cause Ambrosio‘s ruin and win his soul for the devil, Madame‘s death, as the manifestation of Silas‘s defeat on the level of actions, causes his death because he is left helpless. Thereby, the female doubles mirroring a male hero usually reflect his negative side. They represent evil and the introduction of these wicked characters into the hero‘s life means his approaching death.

4.2 The (A)typical Female in Stoker’s Writing and Her Significance

Bram Stoker, as the representative of the late Gothic tradition, has his own manner in depicting women. He is aware of the trends dominating in society, for example, the image of the New Woman that Mina writes about in her diary, and is able to adjust his heroines to the demand of contemporary public. There are two novels analysed on this paper, and although the mechanism and system of doubling in them is different (male – female and female – female doubling), the main heroines share common features, functions and peculiarities. To begin with, the case of male – female doubling in Dracula is very complex. It is hard to analyse first of all because Dracula is a supernatural being, not human. This means that he is not inclined to having mental conflicts or to hesitate. He does not have the split personality (cf. Day 1985: 143) because he himself is the pure evil: he frightens Jonathan almost to death, kills a child and feeds on the blood of the poor innocent girl Lucy. Thereby he is an atypical figure for creation of the double. However, Mina is also a complicated character, both as a woman and as a double. As a woman she is in some way split. She dreams of quiet family life, but at the same time is ready to save her husband and help the men kill the vampire. Her character is a mixture of the female and male features. In contrast to Madame de la Rougierre, Mina‘s masculinity is not linked to her being a double, as she becomes one only in the second part of the novel. On the contrary, she loses her androgyny when she starts turning into a vampire. Dracula turns Mina into a vampire for two reasons. Firstly, he wants to revenge himself. The men, following Van Helsing, are able to destroy his secret shelter and make him flee back to Romania. They pursue him, overcoming all the precautions he was able to arrange beforehand. As a purely wicked character, Dracula wants to revenge himself and for this reason he bites Mina. He, basically, distances her from the realm of the living men, as the vampires are ―living dead‖, and if the transformation is complete, she will be excluded from their circle forever. 53

Secondly, Dracula needs more forces to secure his successful escape back home. Mr. Renfield is not enough for him as the poor crazy guy is trying to resist and defend Mina. She, as a strong woman, could make an effective and reliable double, same as Madame, masculine and able to carry out her master‘s orders. However, this is not the case, because first and foremost Mina is a Victorian woman. She is initially a positive character and does not have any doubts which side to take or what she wants in her life. Although strong and eager to assist men in all they do, Mina remains a weak woman. She is clever and calculating, but the tenderness of her soul is obvious. Thus, instead of reinforcing her male nature, Dracula deprives Mina of her masculinity and contributes to her image of the haunted woman. It seems that his revenge is carried out as he has put a woman so dear to the male heroes in danger. However, as his main intention was to create a servant, in this attempt Dracula is unsuccessful. The link that Dracula has created between himself and his double manifests two things. Firstly, the doubles should share common characteristics or reflect each other. Mina does not reflect Dracula: either on the level of appearance, or on the level of actions. This means that Dracula himself has to share his powers and characteristics to make Mina his double. Thereby, he splits his ―complete identity‖ (Day 1985: 143) and becomes weak. His ultimate power is based on the fact that he is independent from anyone and anything. After creating the double, Dracula becomes dependent on Mina. He makes some use of her, though, as he is able to hear what the men around her are talking about and see what is going on through her eyes. Secondly, if the doubles do not share common features, they are antagonistic and are engaged into opposition. This means that they first of all fight for their aims or survival. Dracula‘s goal is to come back to his native castle where he would be invulnerable. Mina follows the men in order to kill the Count and thereby eliminate her double and save herself. If she fails, she will turn into a vampire and thereby share common characteristics with Dracula – the outcome that she wants not. Thereby, the doubles follow the traditional pattern: they are mutually exclusive and one of them actively tries to eliminate the other. What makes Mina an unusual double is the fact that she is a positive character. The previous examples showed that female doubles are introduced to mirror the wicked inclinations of the heroes. They act as seductresses, infernal doubles or executors of the evil will of their male doubles. In case of Mina, however, the roles are changed. She represents virtues and devotedness of a wife and these features of hers are one of the causes of Dracula‘s collapse. She is not trying to manipulate Dracula in order to cause his transgression to her side, neither does she act as his agent.

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Mina‘s main aim is closely linked to the plan of men – to save the world from such eternal evil as vampires. At the same time, her actions involve the direct interaction with the Count as she is dependent on him in some way. After Dracula bites her, she acquires his main feature – vampirism. Such characteristic is alien to her and the only way to get rid of it is to eliminate the main source, the Count. By her rejection of Dracula‘s quality, Mina shows that she is an artificial double and does not want to remain one. However, the approach that she has to choose in order to carry out her task is characteristic of a classical doppelganger. In the state of trance Mina is able to use the link that Dracula has created to control her for her own purposes. This fact supports the idea that female doubles, even introduced or acting as the instruments of men, can create the reverse connection to their creators. In this situation the relationship between Dracula and Mina is partly similar to the one of Silas and Madame. The essential difference in these two pairs of heroes is the way the men make use of their female doubles. Although Silas seems more successful than Dracula in his attempt to control the main heroine, his son accidentally kills Madame and thus deprives Silas of his main instrument. In case of Dracula, he himself is unable to make proper use of his agent. Either because Mina‘s transformation into his kin is not complete, or because he has got weaker after sharing his powers, the Count loses the bond with his double and fails. Another reason why Dracula is unable to control his double lies in Mina herself. First of all, she is a virtuous woman and a devoted wife. This position already excludes the possibility that she may take the evil side. Thereby, on the analogy of Antonia, she must be either killed or saved. In contrast to the poor Antonia, whose only defender is her mother, Mina is protected by the four men. Their majority in number and knowledge of Van Helsing does not leave Dracula much of a chance. On the other hand, the men would not be able to trace the Count without her help. Secondly, same as Dracula, Mina is not a split personality, at least in the beginning. This fact contributes to her rationality and strength. However, as soon as she realises that she is turning into a vampire, she start doubting her integrity. In contrast to Dracula, who is also split at that point, she is conscious of her emerging double nature. To her luck, the source of her split lies outside her self and thereby can be exterminated painlessly. In comparison, the misfortune of Dr. Jekyll consists in the fact that he tries to isolate and fight separate part of his self by creating a double. He fails because by killing one part of his self he is unable to restore his integral personality. In case of Mina, her double nature is rather a result of the supernatural than of the inner conflict.

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Thereby, Mina as an atypical double possesses two important features: firstly, she does not share common characteristics with Dracula. This means that her vampirism is an artificially acquired quality, which mainly causes the intensification of the opposition between the doubles rather than strengthening the bond. Secondly, intended as an agent of the Count, she is absolutely independent in her actions and thoughts. As he does not give any definite task to carry out, Mina uses her role and new powers for her own good. Thirdly, the woman acts as a classical double and contributes to Dracula‘s elimination.

Another female character introduced by Stoker as an example of the atypical, although partly traditional, doppelganger is Margaret. In contrast to Mina she is very young, fragile and dependent on her father. Margaret represents all the possible virtues of a woman of the Victorian age: she is shy, faithful, devoted to her father and dependent on his will, loving, caring and ready for the self-sacrifice if needed. These virtues of hers are not only praised and admired by the male narrator, but also highlighted on the background of her double, the feministic Egyptian Queen Tera. The main part of the plot of the novel is devoted to the attempt to revive the ancient Queen, and the relation between the women is moved to the conceptual and supernatural level. In contrast to the same sex doppelgangers analysed in the previous chapter, Margaret and Tera are independent characters. The only obviously common feature that they share is the similar appearance. This significant characteristic of the two doubles becomes apparent only by the end of the novel when the narrator himself sees the body of the Queen. From all the other perspectives the women are completely different. Queen Tera is introduced first of all as a supernatural element, whereas Margaret is a typical Victorian woman. Why these two women are linked and what their bond should represent is a complex question. It is impossible to answer it without taking into consideration the male perspective of the story and the social context. As to the male perspective, the narrative is lead from the point of view of Margaret‘s prospective fiancé – a successful lawyer and a mature man. His vision of the story already sets limits or indirect interpretation to both the situation in general and the images of the women in particular. The narrator to some extent acts as the voice of the age, that is, he analyses the females from the perspective of a 19th century man. He praises Margaret‘s virtues which he finds valuable for a wife, and is troubled by the mystery and feministic image of Queen Tera. The contrast between the two doubles is mostly highlighted on the level of their characters. Queen Tera is first of all an ancient artefact, a source of knowledge, which may be unleashed and examined if she resurrects. She is not perceived as a woman because she acquired purely 56 masculine features: she is educated in the same way as the priests, the highest caste of the Ancient Egyptian society. She became a queen of both Higher and Lower Egypt, which was considered almost impossible, and managed to rule successfully resisting the conspiracy of the males. Tera also practiced sorcery and , that is, necromancy, and is supposed to possess the knowledge how to raise the dead. All her skills and images on the pictures present her as an autocratic powerful ruler, not an ordinary woman, not a woman at all. Margaret, to the contrary, is a properly educated housewife, eager to take care of the house and to assist her father in his business. She does not claim to be extraordinarily clever or masterful, she is the ideal wife and daughter. In some situations, though, her behaviour changes and becomes more as of a princess rather than an ordinary woman. The narrator accepts such changes positively as they first of all show Margaret‘s generosity and ability to rule the household. However, the more the narrator finds out about the bond between the two women, the more doubts arise on whether this is the natural behaviour of Margaret, or the traces of Queen Tera. At this point the concept of doubling fully reveals itself. On the basis of the ancient Egyptian beliefs and mythology, the men deduce that the Queen has a mobile soul, which is free to cross time and space. If Margaret‘s appearance resembles Tera to such extent, how do they know if her body does not contain the soul of the Queen? This question first of all causes the distress of the narrator. As a representative of the male part of the Victorian society, he is terrified that his beloved may possess the soul of a creature so distant from the principles and values of the modern social order. Another reason for his nervousness is based on the fear that if Tera‘s soul has to come back into her own body, Margaret will die. This fear reveals the essence of the link between the two women. It is quite possible that if they share the same appearance, their behaviour is also sometimes similar, then, there is a crucial element that should make them real doppelgangers. This is the thing that should represent the eternal conflict of the doubles and cause the death of one of them, because, as could be seen from other examples, there are no cases when the two doubles survive. Tera‘s death, however, may be interpreted in two ways. Firstly, she does not resurrect because her soul is not able to come back to her body, neither is it able to inhabit Margaret‘s. If the Queen made the young girl her double in order to use her body, she would not need to preserve her own in such an impeccable condition. At the same time, the soul, most likely hidden in the sarcophagus and not in Margaret, is unable to revive the Queen anyway. Thereby the question is what role Margaret performs as Tera‘s double, if she is so closely linked to her and at the same time is of no use for her revival. 57

The last statement is, however, arguable. Although Margaret‘s main role is to serve as an example of the ideal Victorian woman on the background of feministic Tera, she also contributes to the preparation process of the Queen‘s revival. This contribution is seen by the narrator as the assistance and fulfilment of her father‘s wishes, rather than active participation in the mysterious process. She finds the lost lamps needed for the accomplishment of the preparation intuitively. She also possesses knowledge and the ability to interpret Queen‘s writings, and these skills seem to come from nowhere. In this case it is possible to state, that Margaret serves as an unconscious guide and adviser for the scientist and in this way the transmitter of Tera‘s will. Thereby, the role of the doppelganger in The Jewel is complex and versatile. On the level of the social perception, Margaret serves as an example of female virtues and Tera acts as the contrastive background. On the level of supernatural in the novel, the close link between the doubles is presented though Margaret‘s behaviour and judgements. Same as Mina she seems an independent character, but at the same time unconsciously follows Queen‘s impulses. Tera‘s death is telling on both levels. She dies firstly because she would not be accepted to the modern society as a woman, and secondly because her double is stronger in the position of a woman. Margaret, in this respect, acts as a classical folklore doppelganger, which has alike appearance but does not share the qualities of the original. She is not that active as Mina and thereby does not fight against the Queen‘s impact. At the same time, Tera‘s influence is not as strong as Dracula‘s, and does not cause direct confrontation of the doubles. Thus, Margaret‘s role is much more complex than of a typical or traditional doppelganger. She is introduced not to signify Tera‘s approaching defeat, or to act as her antagonist, as Mina does to Dracula, but to manifest the ideal of the woman that deserves to survive and live happily ever after. She feels compassion even to the mysterious Egyptian Queen and perceives the world though the prism of femininity and Victorian ideals.

4.3 The Contrast of the Female Doppelgangers’ Roles in Gothic Fiction

To conclude the general comparative analysis of the female doubles in Gothic fiction, it is important to identify the main differences in their roles. The analysis has shown that the character of a doppelganger is a complex phenomenon: it can acquire many forms, perform different roles and may be introduced with various purposes. If the male doubles are usually introduced in order to solve the inner conflict of a hero, the female doubles are inseparably linked to their functions.

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The most typical shape of a female double, originating in medieval literary tradition of psychomachia, is the seductress. Inherited from the wicked demons that tempted the medieval hero, such characters appear in Gothic fiction as the illustration of the hero‘s unconscious desires. The introduction of the female double represents male‘s doubts and fears of whether his sinful inclinations or wishes are appropriate or acceptable by morals or society. However, the seductress‘s main goal is not to clarify or solve this dilemma. She aims at the hero‘s downfall and thus supports and encourages his misdeeds. At the same time, the hero, already straying from the straight and narrow, understands that there is no way back and seeks support, justification and excuse for his actions. In this case, the role of such advocate and defender is also performed by the seductress. As her main goal is to cause the hero‘s damnation, she has to lead him as far as possible into the vice. Thus, teaching or helping him to lull his conscience, she encourages her unfortunate double to violate moral or even criminal laws on the way to his satisfaction. The role of a seductive double is to encourage the development of the wicked traits in the hero‘s personality, which is to support his evil side, his misdeeds and wrong thinking. Such doubles are introduced in order to draw the man‘s attention from his inner dilemma to the delights and benefits that his vices can provide. The woman personifies male‘s wishes, reflects his desire and teaches him to satisfy his lust at any cost. She also supports him in his efforts to go beyond their relationship in order to find satisfaction of his desires in other females. In contrast to seductive wicked women, the female doppelgangers can perform the role of a virtuous double. They represent the positive side of a man and act in a totally opposite to the seductresses way. Usually, their main function is to evoke mercy and repentance in a man in order to put him back to the straight and narrow. However, they are not as active as their rivals and the only tool they are able to employ to influence the man is virtue or weak resistance. The virtuous doppelgangers of the antagonist are introduced to outweigh the evil in him. Usually they are unsuccessful as the men eagerly succumb to the temptation and promises of their wicked doubles and are instructed to eliminate their counterparts. The example of Matilda and Antonia shows that when the female doubles of the man are paired, they are always mutually exclusive. Thereby the tandem of a wicked and virtuous female doubles symbolises the ―universal configurations, such as good versus bad‖ (Krehl 2008: 6) adapted for the Gothic fiction. Apart from the doubles that demonstrate the fight for the man‘s soul, there are those, who function as the hero‘s mirror. The mirroring characters may be of two types: reflecting certain features of the person and thereby passive or acting in the person‘s name and thus active. These

59 doubles possess at least one common feature with the hero, either appearance or traces of character and also share the intention and objectives of the character they mirror. The passive doubles usually serve as a mirror of a man and represent the unacceptable features that he would like to eradicate in himself. It is much easier to deal with such traits when they belong to another person, rather than to the hero himself. The fight within one‘s consciousness is much more painful than eliminating another person. Thereby the mirroring doubles serve to facilitate the inner confrontation. The active mirroring doubles usually perform the function of an agent. As they reflect the inclinations or traces of the hero, they are also supposed to execute his wishes. The female doubles, when mirroring a man, start fulfilling the tasks he is not able to carry out himself. Moreover, the women usually reflect features shared by the two doubles, as in the case of Madame de la Rougierre and uncle Silas, the wickedness and masculinity. Thereby, when a male hero projects his qualities or wishes, he creates a double which is able to compensate for his drawbacks or passivity. At the same time, the passivity of the male figure may be caused by his agent. In case of Mina and Dracula, she performs the role of his agent thereby making him weaker. As there is nothing Mina could mirror in Dracula, her function is limited to being his tool in controlling the men. Failing as a mirroring double, she takes up an antagonistic position. She knows that if she wants to get rid of the characteristic that the Count has endowed her with, she has to eliminate the source. The antagonism between the doppelgangers is the essential part of their relationships, no matter whether the doubles are male or female. Based on the folklore tradition and transformed into the opposition of the two parts of the self, the existence of them both is impossible. Thus, the doubles function as the opposing selves, the two mutually exclusive elements. Moreover, in many cases both doubles die in the hero‘s attempt to solve his inner conflict. However, this rule is not completely applicable to the female doppelgangers. In contrast to the male doubles, both of whom die because of the misbalance when the self is separated, one of the females always survives (cf. Losano 2004: 113). This may be explained by the fact that the female characters, as external doubles, represent powers that may exist separately from the hero. Thereby, it is possible to identify four main roles of the female doppelgangers: the seductress or the virtuous double, who serve as a catalyst of the hero‘s wicked or moral inclinations respectively; the mirror that reflects certain features of its double; and the agent that performs the actions, which the heroes are unable to complete themselves. They all may also share the feature of being a mutually exclusive element, although this is not compulsory.

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This lengthy enumeration shows that female doppelgangers are versatile and complex characters. Although some of their functions coincide with those of the male doubles, the cases when the females perform the role of the infernal seductive doubles or of a mirror are much more frequent than those involving males. At the same time, the initial purpose for creating the male double is to illustrate the split of personality (cf. Kehl 2008: 6), whereas the females are engaged in more complex plots and may act on different levels. Thereby, female doppelgangers in Gothic fiction have a vast variety of forms and functions. Although they inherit some characteristics and roles form the male doubles, their role in Gothic writing is usually more significant. Firstly, they are usually paired; this means that one male hero is mirrored from the two sides, the positive and the negative. Such combination enables the author to more fully depict the inner conflict of the hero projected on his relations with the two opposite women. Secondly, female doubles mirror the original in a more dramatic and impressive way. As they are more expressive than men, the female doubles easier transmit emotions and intensify the effect of doubling. The analysis has shown that a woman performing the role of seductress or a wicked double is more likely to succeed because she is more passionate compared to her virtuous antagonist. At the same time, the suffering of the weaker double is more touching. This may also be explained by the analogy with male doppelgangers: when a man splits his self, its evil part is always stronger and more expressive as it is not limited by morals or self-control. Eventually, female doppelgangers are much more appropriate for drawing contrasts. This means, that when compared, there are many perspectives and levels on which they may be analysed. This fact is caused by the complex attitude to women in the 19th century. On the one hand the generally accepted ideal of the ‗angel in the house‘ is still vital, on the other, the New Women start to emerge and claim their rights. Thereby, female doppelgangers reflect not only the inner conflict of a man, the confrontation of good and evil, but also the trends of the age that caused passionate discussions and contradictions.

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6. Conclusion

The comparative perspective of the female doppelgangers in Gothic fiction allows answering many questions concerning both the genre and the epoch. The analysis was provided from a number of sides. Firstly, it was important to identify the background of the doppelgangers in fiction and psychology. Secondly, the analogy with the male doppelgangers was built by the analysis and comparison of the male doubles. Thirdly, basing on this analogy, it became possible to conduct contrastive analysis of the female doppelgangers and thus to identify their main roles and functions. After having analysed the nature of doubling, it is possible to claim that the doppelgangers were introduces to illustrate the inner conflict of a hero and present it on the external level. It is worth mentioning that almost all the doppelgangers represent the ‗opposing self‘ which, basically, is the part of the hero‘s psyche. Thus the double does not only inform the reader of the psychological problems of the character, but personifies them. Although introduced in order to help the hero deal with the inner problems, the double usually sharpens the conflict within the split self and causes the hero‘s downfall. In contrast to male doubles, who are mutually exclusive and representative of the purely negative part of the self, female doppelgangers may reflect both sides of the character. In this terms they may be considered more effective as, firstly, they are able to catalyze the development of the story by either seducing the male and prompting him to violent actions, or by being fragile and needing protection and help. In both cases the women not only act as the reflection of the hero‘s inclination, but add their own feminine colouring to the story. Female doubles are not limited to the functions of opposing self or a mirror. They are more flexible and able to represent various sides of the man at the same time. In the female – female relationship, however, the spectrum of their functions becomes even wider as they are also employed in order to illustrate the trends and order in the modern society. Thus they are linked not only to their mail double or prototype, but also to the society in general. Thereby, the female doppelgangers may be placed among the most versatile, ambiguous and at the same time indicative literary heroes. The comparative perspective on such characters opens a wide variety of approaches, multiple interpretations and deductions. This paper has presented the contrastive analysis of their roles and ways of influencing the male characters and the plot.

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6. Abstract

The Thesis is devoted to the comparative perspective on the female doppelgangers in Gothic fiction. It raises a number of questions such as the nature of doubling, role of females in Gothic fiction and the peculiarities of female doubles. The first part of the paper is dedicated to the analysis of the nature of doubling. It shows that the appearance of the doppelgangers is closely linked to the functioning of human psyche. Although the phenomenon of doubling emerged in literature much earlier than in psychology, it may still be explained by the earliest works on psychoanalysis, e.g. by Freud or Jung. Their research shows that the attempt to suppress the negative inclinations of the unconscious may result in such thing as projection. This means transferring one‘s negative traits either to another person, or creating a separate person with these qualities. Thereby the essence of doubling lays in the attempt to deal with or separate oneself from the uncontrolled primitive desires and inclinations. The second chapter provides a complex analysis of the female doppelgangers. The first part presents the two most common examples of the male doubles: Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde from the Robert Louis Stevenson‗s novel of the same name, and Robert Wrigham and Gil-Martin from The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner by James Hogg. Dr. Jekyll attempts to get rid of the negative side of his self by trying to split his person into two. Although he formally succeeds, the story ends on both characters dying as there can exist pure evil, but a man can never be totally good or virtuous. In the case of the Justified Sinner, Robert Wrigham unconsciously creates a double to justify his misdeeds. Gil-Martin is presented as a typical infernal figure that always supports and justifies Wrigham‘s crimes. The double, thereby, is created by the main hero to avoid pangs of conscience. Both examples show that male heroes create male doubles in the attempt to solve their inner conflict: Dr. Jekyll wants to stop being concerned with his evil thoughts and negative attitudes, and Robert Wrigham needs a double to justify his actions and be able to share responsibility. In contrast to these cases, the female doppelgangers are introduced by the authors in order to mirror the men. The second part of the chapter shows that female doubles serve to highlight and catalyze the negative inclinations of the males. In case of M. G. Lewis‘s The Monk the main hero Ambrosio succumbs to crime because he is prompted by a seductive woman, a mirror of his vicious and impure thoughts. In the end, her support of his misdeeds causes monk‘s downfall and he himself is unable to come back to his normal virtuous life. In Uncle Silas by J. T. Sheridan Le Fanu the situation differs, as the evil female heroine is introduced to mirror the cunning uncle of the main protagonist. The female 63 double in this case acts as an executor of the antagonist‘s plans. He is so closely linked to her as when the woman fails, he is left helpless and lost. An interesting example is B. Stoker‘s Dracula. In contrast to the previous cases, the downfall of Dracula is caused by himself. His character does not need incentives or executors. He creates a double – turns a woman into a vampire – but is unable to make use of her. In this case, when the antagonist splits himself in two mutually linked supernatural beings, he is doomed to collapse, because this makes him weaker. The third part of the chapter is devoted to the analysis of the female doubles of women. In Stoker‘s The Jewel of the Seven Stars the heroine is a full-fledged double of an ancient Egyptian queen. The link between the women is mostly seen in appearance. Compared to male characters, the heroine does not suffer either split personality, which caused the doubling in the first two examples, or needs a mirror character. The contrast between the two doubles, though, has several levels. Firstly, the author highlights the role and characteristics of the Victorian women, compared to the authoritative and feminist Egyptian Queen. Secondly, he presents the heroine as an instrument for both the Queen and her own father who is trying to resurrect the monarch. Thereby, the female doubles of the heroines are more closely bound to them in terms of appearance, but, same as some male doubles of the heroes, they are opposed to each other. The last chapter of the paper represents the general analysis and summary of the characteristics of the female doppelgangers in Gothic fiction. It shows why, analogous to male doubles, the female doubles are introduced and how they act in relation to their double-character and the plot in general. Females, acquiring the characteristic of seductresses, are able to mislead the hero and let him follow his instincts forgetting the morals. They can also act on the level of the plot in order to introduce supernatural links to other characters and mirror their unconscious wicked thoughts or actions. In all the cases, the doubles cause death of the hero or heroine they are linked to, most likely because of the folklore tradition – the belief that anyone, who meet his \ her double is doomed to die. Thereby the paper provides the versatile analysis of the characters of the female doppelgangers, their characteristic features and functions. The analysis is done on the background of the general Victorian trends in depiction of women and in frames of Gothic fiction.

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7. Deutsche Zusammenfassung

Die vorliegende Master-Thesis ist der komparativen Perspektive über die weiblichen Doppelgänger in der Schauerliteratur gewidmet. Dies wirft eine Reihe von Fragestellungen auf, wie z.B. die nach der Natur der Verdoppelung, der Rolle der Frauen in der Schauerliteratur und der Besonderheit der weiblichen Doubles. Der erste Teil der Arbeit ist der Analyse der Natur der Verdoppelung gewidmet. Dies zeigt, dass das Erscheinen der Doppelgänger mit dem Funktionieren der menschlichen Psyche eng verbunden ist. Zwar kam das Phänomen der Verdoppelung in der Literatur viel früher als in der Psychologie zum Vorschein, doch kann dies schon anhand der frühesten Werke über die Psychoanalyse, wie etwa von Freud oder Jung, erklärt werden. Ihre Untersuchungen zeigen, dass der Versuch, einige negative Abweichungen des Unbewussten zu unterdrücken, in der Auslösung des Abwehrmechanismus resultieren können. Dies bedeutet entweder die Übertragung von negativen Zügen auf eine andere Person oder die Schaffung einer separaten Person mit diesen Eigenschaften. Somit liegt das Wesen der Verdoppelung im Versuch, mit eigenen unkontrollierbaren, primitiven Wünschen und Abweichungen umzugehen, beziehungsweise, sich von ihnen zu distanzieren. Der zweite Teil der Arbeit bietet eine komplexe Analyse der weiblichen Doppelgänger. Das erste Kapitel präsentiert die zwei meisten bekanntesten Beispiele von männlichen Doppelgängern: Dr. Jekyll und Mr. Hyde aus dem Roman von Robert Louis Stevenson mit dem gleichen Titel sowie Robert Wrigham und Gil-Martin aus James Hoggs The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner. Dr. Jekyll versucht, sich von seinen eigenen negativen Seiten zu befreien, indem er seine Persönlichkeit auf zwei aufteilt. Obwohl er es nominell schafft, endet die Erzählung damit, dass beide Charaktere sterben, da zwar das reine Böse allein existieren kann, doch die Existenz einer Person als eine rein gute und tugendhafte unmöglich ist. Im Falle des Justified Sinners schafft Robert Wrigham unbewusst einen Doppelgänger um seine Taten zu rechtfertigen. Gil-Martin wird als eine infernale Figur präsentiert, die ständig Wrigham Verbrechen unterstützt und rechtfertigt. Der Doppelgänger ist deshalb vom Hauptprotagonisten erschaffen, um eigene Gewissenängste vermeiden zu können. Beide Beispiele zeigen, dass die männlichen Protagonisten männliche Doppelgänger schaffen, in einem Versuch, ihre eigenen inneren Konflikte zu lösen: Dr. Jekyll ist willens, seine Besorgnis gegenüber seinen bösen Gedanken und negativen Verhalten zu beenden, und Robert Wrigham benötigt seinen Doppelgänger, um seine Taten rechtfertigen zu können und Verantwortlichkeit zu teilen. Im Gegensatz zu diesen Thesen, werden die weiblichen Doppelgänger von den Autoren vorgestellt, um die Männer widerzuspiegeln. Das zweite Kapitel 65 des zweiten Teils zeigt, dass die weiblichen Doppelgänger dazu dienen, die negativen Abweichungen der Männer zu beleuchten und zu katalysieren. Im Falle von M.G. Lewis The Monk kann der Hauptprotagonist dem Verbrechen nicht widerstehen, da er von einer verführerischen Frau angespornt wurde – ein Spiegel seiner lasterhaften und unreinen Gedanken. Am Ende veranlasst ihre Unterstützung seiner Taten seinen Fall und er selber ist nicht imstande, zu seinem normalen und tugendhaften Leben zurückzukehren. In Uncle Silas von J. T. Sheridan Le Fanu ist die Situation eine andere, sobald die böse Frau in den Grundstock der Handlung eingeführt ist, um den listigen Onkle des Hauptprotagonisten widerzuspiegeln. Die weibliche Doppelgängerin agiert in diesem Falle als Exekutorin der Pläne des Antagonisten. Er ist zu ihr so eng verbunden, dass, wenn die Frau fällt, er hilflos, verloren und verlassen wäre. Ein interessantes Beispiel ist in B. Stokers Dracula zu sehen. Im Gegensatz zum vorigen Fall, wurde der Fall von Dracula von ihm selbst veranlasst. Sein Charakter benötigt keine Anstöße oder Exekutoren. Er schafft Doppelgänger – verwandelt eine Frau in einen Vampir – aber ist nicht imstande, daraus Nutzen zu ziehen. In diesem Fall, wenn der Antagonist sich in zwei wechselseitig verbundene übernatürliche Geschöpfe aufteilt, ist er zum Scheitern verurteilt, da ihn dies schwächer macht. Der dritte Teil dieses Kapitels ist der Analyse der weiblichen Doppelgänger der Frauen gewidmet. Die Heldin in Stokers The Jewel of the Seven Stars ist eine vollwertige Doppelgangerin einer ägyptischen Königin. Die Verbindung zwischen den Frauen ist am meisten im Aussehen zu erkennen. Im Vergleich zu männlichen Charakteren leidet die Heldin weder an Persönlichkeitsspaltung, die die Verdoppelung in den zwei ersten Beispielen verursacht, noch benötigt sie einen Spiegelcharakter. Der Kontrast zwischen den zwei Doppelgängern hat jedoch mehrere Ebenen. Erstens beleuchtet der Autor die Rolle und Charakteristiken der viktorianischen Frauen, die mit der autoritären und feministischen ägyptischen Königin verglichen werden. Zweitens, präsentiert er die Heldin als Instrument sowohl für die Königin, als auch für ihren eigenen Vater, der den Monarchen zu beleben versucht. Deshalb sind die weiblichen Doppelgänger der Heldinnen näher zu ihnen selbst in Bezug auf Aussehen, aber sie sind, analogisch zu den männlichen Doppelgängern der Helden, einander gegenübergestellt. Das letzte Kapitel der Arbeit repräsentiert eine generelle Analyse und Zusammenfassung der Charakteristiken der weiblichen Doppelgänger in der Schauerliteratur. Dies zeigt warum, ähnlich zu männlichen Doppelgängern, die weiblichen Doppelgänger eingeführt werden und wie sie im Verhältnis zu ihren Doppelcharakteren im Allgemeinen und zum Sujet im Einzelnen agieren. Frauen, da sie verführerische Charakteristiken besitzen, sind imstande, den Held zu verführen, so dass er seinen eigenen Instinkten zu folgen beginnt und darüber die Moral vergisst. Sie können ebenfalls auf der Sujetebene agieren, um übernatürliche Bindungen zu anderen Charakteren 66 vorzustellen, und ihre unbewussten lasterhaften Gedanken oder Akten widerzuspiegeln. In allen Fällen verursachen die Doppelgänger den Tod des Helden oder der Heldin, an die sie gebunden sind, am meisten wegen der folkloristischen Tradition – der Glaube, dass, wen jemand seinen bzw. ihren Doppelgänger trifft, ist er/sie zum Tode verurteilt. Daher bietet die Arbeit eine mehrseitige Analyse der Charaktere der weiblichen Doppelgänger, ihre charakteristischen Eigenschaften und Funktionen. Die Analyse wurde im Hintergrund der generellen viktorianischen Trends der Beschreibung von Frauen sowie im Rahmen der Schauerliteratur durchgeführt.

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8. Bibliography

8.1 Primary Literature

Hogg, James (1824). The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner. The Internet Archive.http://www.archive.org/stream/privatememoirsco00hoggrich/privatememoirsco00h oggrich_djvu.txt [2011, March 20]. Le Fanu, Joseph Sheridan (1899).Uncle Silas: a Tale of Bartram-Haugh. The Internet Archive. http://ia600108.us.archive.org/1/items/unclesilas14851gut/14851-h/14851-h.htm [2011, March 10]. Lewis, Matthew Gregory (1796). The Monk: a Romance. The Internet Archive. http://www.archive.org/stream/themonkaromance00601gut/tmonk10.txt [2011, March 10]. Stevenson, Robert Louis (1886). The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Illustrated by Charles Raymond Macauley. The Internet Archive. http://www.archive.org/ stream/strangecaseofdr00stevuoft/strangecaseofdr00stevuoft_djvu.txt [2011, March 15]. Stoker, Bram (1897). Dracula. The Internet Archive. http://www.archive.org/stream/ dracula00345gut/dracu13.txt [2011, April 10]. --- (1903).The Jewel of the Seven Stars. Goodreads. http://www.goodreads.com/ reader/1102- the-jewel-of-seven-stars?percent=0.143746 [2011, April 10]. --- (1912). The Jewel of the Seven Stars. The Internet Archive. http://www.archive.org/ stream/thejewelofsevens03781gut/thjwl10.txt [2011, April 5]. Walpole, Horace (1764). . The Internet Archive. http://www. archive.org/stream/thecastleofotran00696gut/cotrt10.txt [2011, April 5].

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8.2 Secondary Literature

Aguirre, Manuel (1995). ―The Roots of the Symbolic Role of Women in Gothic Literature‖. In Exhibited by Candlelight: Sources and Developments in the Gothic Tradition. Ed. Valeria Tinkler-Villani. Amsterdam: Rodopi. 57 – 63. Boorstein, Seymour (1997). Clinical Studies in Transpersonal Psychotherapy. New York: State University of New York Press. Cavaliero, Glen (1995). The Supernatural and English Fiction. Oxford: Oxford UP. Daniels, Michael (2005). Shadow, Self, Spirit: in Transpersonal Psychology. Exeter: Imprint Academic. Day, William Patrick (1985). In the Circles of Fear and Desire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Deirdre, David (1987). Intellectual Women and Victorian Patriarchy: Martineau, Elizabeth Browning, Eliot. New York: Cornell UP. Dryden, Linda (2003). The Modern Gothic and Literary Doubles: Stevenson, Wilde and Wells. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Frankl, Paul (1961). The Gothic : Literary Sources and Interpretations Through Eight Centuries. Princeton: Princeton UP. Freud, Sigmund (1919). The Uncanny. ed. Laurel Amtower. http://www- rohan.sdsu.edu/~amtower/uncanny.html [2011, March 17]. Gilbert, Sandra M. and Gubar, Susan (1979). The Madwoman in the Attic: the Woman Writer and the 19th-Century Literary Imagination. New Haven: Yale UP. Graham, Kenneth W. ed. (1989) Gothic : prohibition, transgression. New York: AMS Press. Hogle, Jerrold E. ed. (2006). The Cambridge companion to Gothic fiction. Cambridge: Cambridge UP. Howard, Jacqueline (1994). Reading Gothic Fiction : a Bakhtinian Approach. Oxford: Oxford UP. Howells, Coral Ann (1995). Love, Mystery, and Misery : Feeling in Gothic Fiction. London: Athlone. Krehl, Eva Maria (2008). ‗Together They Would be Complete‘ Female Doubles in C. P. Gilman‘s ―The Yellow Wall-Paper‖ and H. James‘s ―The Bostonians‖. Eberhard-Karls- Universität Tübingen. Amerikanistik. Tübingen: GRIN Verlag.

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Kumar, Shiv K. ed. (1969). British Victorian Literature: Recent Revaluations. New York: New York UP. Lerner, Laurence ed. (1978). The Victorians (The Context of ). London: Methuen. MacAndrew, Elizabeth (1979). The Gothic Tradition in Fiction. New York: Columbia UP. MacAndrew, Elizabeth (1986). ―Characters – the Split Personality. Gothic Hero-Villain: Tormented Double‖. In The English Gothic Novel: a Miscellany in Four Volumes. Ed. Dr. James Hogg et.al. Vol. 1. Institut fur Anglistik und Amerikanistik, Salzburg: Universitat Salzburg. 162 – 183. MacAndrew, Elizabeth (1986). ―The Earth Mothers and Witches‖. In The English Gothic Novel: a Miscellany in Four Volumes. Ed. Dr. James Hogg et.al. Vol. 1. Institut fur Anglistik und Amerikanistik, Salzburg: Universitat Salzburg. 184 – 188. Meyers, Helene (2001). Femicidal Fears: of the Female Gothic Experience. New York: State University of New York Press. Mulvey-Roberts, Marie ed. (1999). The Handbook of Gothic. Basingstoke: Macmillan Perkin, Joan (1994). Victorian Women. London: Murray. Punter, David (1996). The Literature of Terror: a History of Gothic Fictions from 1765 to the Present Day. London: Longman. Punter, David, and Byron, Malden (2004). The Gothic. Glennis: Blackwell. Ralph, Phyllis C. (1989). Victorian Transformations: Tales, Adolescence, and the Novel of Female Development. New York: Peter Lang. Reed, John R. (1975). Victorian Conventions. USA: Ohio UP. Rogers, Robert (1970). A Psychoanalytic Study of the Double in Literature. Detroit: Wayne State UP. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky (1980). The Coherence of Gothic Conventions. New York, NJ: Arno Press. Spooner, Catherine (2004). Fashioning Gothic Dodies. Manchester: Manchester UP. Stickney-Ellis, Sarah (1999). ―The Women of England, Their Social Duties and Domestic Habbits‖. In Victorian Prose: an Anthology. Ed. by Rosemary J. Mundhenk. New York: Columbia UP. 54. Vardoulakis, Dimitris (2010). The Doppelgänger: Literature's Philosophy. New York: Fordham UP. Varma, Devendra P. (1957). The Gothic Flame: Being a History of the Gothic Novel in England: Its Origins, Efflorescence, Disintegration and Residuary Influences. London: Barker.

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8.3 Internet Sources

―doppelganger‖ (2011). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. [Online]. Encyclopædia Britannica http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/169319/doppelganger [2011, April 5]. ―doppelganger‖ (2011). Etymology Online. [Online]. Online Etymology Dictionary. http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=doppelganger&searchmode=none [2011, April 5] ―Wilhelm\William‖ (2011). Behind the Name. [Online]. Behind the Name, the etymology and history of the first name. http://www.behindthename.com/name/william [2011, April 17]

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