IGERIA AND THE INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION
FLOW: ISStr17" AND PERSPECTIVES
. I
BY
HADI YARO ALHASSAN B.A.(Ed) HISTORY(B.U.K.)
SEPTEMBER 2003 NIGERIA .A.ND THE INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION
FLOW: ISSUES AND PERSPECTIVES.
BY
HADI YARO ALHASSAN
NO: 00415023
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO TilE POSTGRADUA1E SCHOOL, UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF TilE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS (MEDIA ARTS), UNIVERSITY OF ABUJA.
SEPTEMBER, 2003. DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to the living memory of my late father, Alhaji Yaro Alhassan, who died on
31st July, 1990. May his soul rest in Perfect Peace
(Ameen).
1. CERTIFICATION
'his research project has been examined and approved as having satisfied the
onditions for the award of a Master of Arts (MA) Degree in the Department of
�heatre Arts of the University of Abuja.
4 )r. K waghkondo Agber ------__ :J_fl?:)2: . )UperviSOr, S gnature and Date
)r. K waghkondo Agber ------::}���;2,� Head, Department of Theatre Arts Signa ure and Date
Professor Mike Egbon
External Examiner Signature and Date
>rofessor Saint Gbilekaa
)ean of Postgraduate School Signature and Date
.. ll. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
am grateful to Almighty God for giving me the opportunity to make this thesis a
�ality. A work of this nature demands a lot of indebtedness particularly to the
eople who in one way or the other contributed to its success. In this respect, I wish
) therefore express my profound appreciation and gratitude to my supervisors,
.amely: Professor Mike Egbon, the Head of Mass Communication Department,
�ayero University Kano, Dr Kwaghkondo Agber, the Head of TheatJire Arts >epartment, University of Abuja and Dr. Steve Ogunsuyi, whose illuminating and
:tcisive criticisms, suggestions and corrections made this work both exciting and
ruitful to the end. Dr. Agber, particularly attended to me promptly and lent to me as
1any books as I demanded. I am also thankful to the Dean of Postgraduate School,
Jniversity of Abuja, Professor Saint Gbilekaa, for the significant roles he played in
1e course of writing this thesis.
am especially grateful to my wife Hajiya Habiba who in one way or the other
ndured series of deprivations with patience and understanding and earnestly prayed
:>r my success. I am equally thankful to my two children Alhassan and Aminu
Khalifa) who were also severally deprived of my fatherly companionship in the
ourse of writing this thesis.
,iy immense appreciation and profound thanks also go to Mr. Hubert J. Charles, the
JNESCO representative in Nigeria and ECOW AS, for the long interview he granted ae as well as generously making available to me, the use of their facilities, library tnd personnel. v1y eternal gratitude also goes to Alhaji Mohammed Ali, the former permanent ecretary Federal Ministry of Information and Culture, who gave an immeasurable noral and financial support at such critical time. I am most grateful.
iii inally, I have been assisted in matters big and small by many friends with whom I iscussed the issues brought up in this research work, I must therefore acknowledge te contributions given to me by them. To these friends, particularly those in the
;ademic circle, I can only thank them collectively , because they are too numerous
• mention. Most importantly, they should all be well aware of how indebted I am to tern, as I am to all others who contributed in bringing this thesis to its present form .
. IV. ABSTRACT This study is primarily conducted out of the conviction that Nigeria's role in
international information gathering and dissemination has left much to be desired.
The propelling aim of this study, therefore, is to critically examine the various
factors bedeviliing Nigeria's effective performance in the international information
system. Secondly, the study attempts to map out appropriate implementable strategies
that would enhance Nigeria's role in the international information system, in
consonance with the current trends in the global information order.
The tool of research primarily used in this study is historical methodology of data
collection. However, other tools used in data collection include personal observation
and the conduction of oral interviews with information and communication experts
and various stakeholders.
The study discusses and critically exammes vanous perspectives that relate to
Nigeria's roles in the international information system. These include, the National
�Aass Communication Policy as it relates to the Nigeria's external communication
structures, Nigeria and the New World Information and Communication Order; the
structure and operations of the international media; Nigeria as portrayed by the
International media, as well as the international media and cultural imperialism and
its impact on the Nigerian society. Also discussed and analysed are the various
government policy measures and institutional frameworks as they relate to the
International Information flow.
At the end of this study, it was concluded that Nigeria's dismal performance in the
international information system is largely due to the under funding of the relevant
information organs and unavailability of technological wherewithal and infrastructural facilities. There is also the issue of the gap between policy formulation
and implementations as well as inadequate skilled manpower, among others.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication
Certification page 11
Acknowledgements lll
Abstract v
Abbreviations IX
CHAPTER ONE
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 12
1.3 Study Objectives 12
1.4 Significance of the Study 13
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study 13
1.6 Methodology of the Research 14
1.7 Theoretical Framework 14
1.8 Conceptual Definitions 19
CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Literature Review 23
2.2 The Media and the New Communication Technologies 23
2.3 The Structure and Operations of the International Media 30
2.4 Nigeria as Portrayed by the International Media 35
2.5 The Impact of the International Media and
Cultural Imperialism on the Nigerian Society. 57
VI. CHAPTER THREE
3.1 The Nigerian Information System 69
3.2 The Role of the FederalMinistry oflnfonnation
and National Orientation in the Information System 70 3.3 . The Establishment of the National Broadcasting Commission
and the Emergence of Private Broadcasting in Nigeria 81
CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 Nigeria in the International Information System 89
4.2 The National Mass Communication Policy as it affects
Nigeria in the International Information System 89
4.2.1 The Philosophy and Objectives of the National
Mass Communication Policy 91
4.2.2 Nigeria's External Communication Structures 92
4.3 The Relationships between Nigerian Electronic Media
and the News Agency and the International Media. 109
4.4 Nigerian and the New World Information and Communication Order 116
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations 154
5.2 Summary 154
5.3 Conclusions 156
5.4 Recommendations 160
Appendix I: AnAbridged Interview with Mr. Godfrey Odu,
former NT A Foreign Correspondent. 170
. . Vll. Appendix II: An Abridged Interview with Mr. Emmanuel Agbegir, former Head of Nigeria Information Service Centre, New York. 173
5.6 Bibliography 174
Vlll. ABBREVIATIONS
t\.F-P Agence France Presse
A. IT Africa Independent Television
AJ> Associated Press
BONAC Broadcasting Organisation of Non-Aligned Countries
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BBS Bulletin Board System
BPE Bureau of Public Enterprises
CBA Commonwealth Broadcasting Association
CNN Cable Network News
CBS Columbia Broadcasting Services
CIA Central Intelligence Agency
COMINAC- Conference of Ministers of Information of Non-Aligned
Countries.
DBS Direct Broadcasting Satellites
DRM Digital Radio Mudial
FCDA Federal Capital Development Authority
FRI France Radio International
FCC Federal Communications Commission
JNA Ghana News Agency
}DP Gross Domestic Product
TAR-TASS- Information and Telegraph Agency of Russia - Telegraph
Agencies of Soviet Union
-JANAP Non-Aligned News Agency Pool
..JMCP National Mass Communication Policy
..J"TA Nigerian Television Authority
IX. NWICO New World Information and Communication Order
NCC National Communications Commission
NAM Non-Aligned Movement
NBC National Broadcasting Commission
PANA Pan Africa News Agency
TCSRIC Telecommunication Sector Reform Implementation
Committee
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational and Scientific Organisation
URTNA Union of Radio and Television Networks in Africa
VOA Voice of America
VON Voice of Nigeria
ZNA Zambian News Agency
X. CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This study has been influenced by the awareness of the monumental problems
confronting the Nigerian information system, particularly the electronic media vis-a-
' vis its roles in the international information system. This awareness gave rise to the
need to unearth various perspectives to the series of problems militating against
Nigeria�s effective performance in the global information system.
Nigeria like other developing nations has suffered untold international media·
onslaught in the hands of the Euro-American nations who firmly control the
Information and Communication Teclmology. The dcveioped nations and their
powerful media institutions in most instances have been seen to unilateraliy decide
in what image Nigeria should be reported to the international audience. In addition
to these, it is beleaved th�t Nigeria is mostly blacked out on news coverage that
' relates to the national development and growth or po1irayed as a nation inhabited by.
criminals a people without hope, intellect or perception. These types of coverage on
Nigeria by. the international media has been a somce of great concern; hence, the
need to find a lasting solution to this imbalance in the international information
system.
The major issues smrounding the international information flow in the context of
this study. borders on the dominance of the international information system by the industrialized north who control the production and distribution of information at the global level. This dominance has been sustained for decades largely owing to th� vibrant economy, superiority in the field of advanced technology,. expettise, as weii as the appreciation of the strategic impmiance of the media industry to the development of modern society, among others. This development has resulted in the concentration of many influential international
media outfits and wire service agencies in the industrialised countries of the north.
This, by extension, has conferred on them the power to determine the international
flO\v of information. This scenario has led to dependency situation in which case
most of the developing nations. depend on the international news agencies for
information about each other which arc mostly imbalanced (.l'vlacBride et al, 1980: 142).
Similarly, news dished out by the international media about Africa· in general and
Nigeria in particular are characterised by negative stereotypes. This situation is
further aggravated when we take into cognisance the fact that developing nations,
Nigeria inclusive, are still the most under-reported regions, the most negatively
portrayed in the international media and the least integrated internally in terms of
communication infrastructures and services (Momoh, I 989:6).
Further to these, news reports and cultural presentations about Africa in the
international media continue to depict an image of backwardness, povetty, disease'
and under�evelopment. Even national calamities such as, drought, eatihquakes,
desett�fication and flood among others are played up not to win sympathy for the
. victims, but to reinforce the stereotyped views of Afi·ican helplessness. This scenario
is sustained by the structural inequality in the New World lnformation Order.
Nigeria became an active member of the international information system in 1962, sh01tly after independence when government set up the machinery to establish an
external broadcasting wing of Radio Nigeria. Therefore, two years after
independence, Voice of Nigeria was established as an arm of the Radio Nigeria. J\t
2 the peak of its operations under Radio Nigeria, Voice of Nigeria was broadcasting in
English, German, French, ·swahili, Hausa and i\rabic to West Africa, East, Central
and So�thern Africa, N01th Afi"ica and other parts of the world. Voice of Nigeria
was excised from Radio Nigeria on January and thus became an autonomous • 5, 1990 corporation as the nation's external broadcasting media organ (J\madi et a!,
2001 :20-21 ) .
Fwthermore, the coming of Nigeria's independence in 1960, made it mandatory for representation abroad by embassies manned by Nigerian nationals.. It was deemed
fit that the better somce of officers to represent Nigeria's information interests, was
the Federal l'vlinistry of Information. Therefoi·e, information officers were posted
abroad under the auspices of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, to head the press and
public a1Tairs unit of the embassies: They were charged with the responsibility of .
enlightening the international public on the policies and activities of the government
of the newly .independent Nigeria. For proper coordination, the: Feueral Ministry of Information took over the full responsibilities of establishing and maintaining
Nigeria Information Service Centres (NISC) abroad in 1981. Since then the ministry directly posts information officers abroad to project and ,pefend Nigeria's Image
abroa�. (Federal !\1inistry of Information, 1994: 16).
Nigeria's active participation in the international information system was further
enhanced in 1978 with the creation of News Agency of Nigeria NAN. As Chief Anthony Enahoro, the then Federal Commissioner of Information puts it; the need to. establish NAN arose partly out of the desire to buttress "Nigeria's growing role in the regional, continental and international affairs" (Ibid: I 02). Two years afier its establishment, NAN opened offices in London, New York and Harare. This was to ' I • serve as a stepping-stone to opening more offices in other parts of the \vorld. Since their establishment, these organs serve as indispensable tools in enhancing Nigeria's
3 role in the international information system with each contributing its quota towards
the realisation of the primary goals of its establishment.
Sequel to the unequal relationship of dominance in the sphere of international
information production and distribution, there \vere agitations by the developing
·nations, including Nigeria, for free flow of balanced information across the globe.
These nations are against the overwhelming preponderance of information circulated
from a smajl number o( it1dustrialised countries into the huge area of developing
\vorld. The concentration of print and electronic media, the multinational
corporations who manufactw·e information and communication equipment as well as
the possession of the technological know-how in a small number of highly
industrialised nations infact does not allow for any chance of full-scale and balanced
international exchange of information.
These grievances as propounded by the developing nations formed the basis for the
call of a New World Information Communication Order (NVv'ICO). To redress the
above scenario therefore, many developing nations including Nigeria initiated steps
aimed at enhancing their roles in the international information system. These
include a1�1ong others the establishment of news agencies, regional and intercontinental cooperation between news agencies and broadcasting organisations, holding of international conferences, sem.inars and professional meetings and establishment of regional news and broadcasting agencies, etc.
H is in the light of this development that most, national, continental and regional organisations emerged in Africa and other parts of deveioping nations. These include; Ghana News Agency (GNA), Zambian News Agency (ZNA), News
Agency of Nigeria (NAN), Voice of Nigeria (VON), Pan African News AgencY.
(P ANA), Broadcasting Organisations of Non-Aligned Countries (BONAC) and
Union of Radio and Television Networks in Africa (URTNA) among others.
4 At this juncture it would be of great significance to briefly highlight some of the
information functions performed by the mass media at the national level before
delving further into the international arena. This is aimed at appreciating the
strategic importance of this sector in the socio - economic as, well as the political
advancement of a modern society.
The potency of the mass media m the contemporary world, particularly at the
information level, has been recognised as a veritable t.ool fo r the social, economic as
well as the political development of any modern society. The existing trend is fo r . the new communication technology to be used fo r information gathering and
.delivery, be it print or electronic. The new teclmique, which is speedy and a more
efficient way of information transmission and retrieval, has dramatically brought the
diverse people of the world into a 'global village'. '
It is significant to point out that, information, communication and mass media activities are complex and in�ispensable aspects in international relations. They are
therefore inseparably bound up with international competition with the media being
used as a principal instrument. They also serve as veritable tools in the area of inter
governmental and non-governmental international co-operation. The complex
nature of the global information and communication system is fu rther enhanced by the ever-greater bearing of the mass media in the art of international relations and diplomacy. This complexity is fu rther accenttmted by the rapidly growing number of parties in the global information and communication fields. This is fu rther' strengthened by the rapid and ever-increasing development in the field of new communications technologies, which consequently expands international exchange of information among others.
Closely related to the above, modern experiment has shown beyond reasonable doubt that fo rmidable ,and vibrant information and communication systems are synonymous to power and development, not only within. the nation but also 5 J internationally. Thus, the inestimable value of info rmation in the organisation of various fa cets of human life has become obvious. The new information technology
therefore predominates human activities, politically, socially and economically. Moreso, not only do we need in(ormation for decision making processes, it is also an essential ingredient fo r development planing and crisis mana.gell?ent among others. More fundamentally, information is an indispensable tool in the routine but very complex task of public administration. These among others make the present era in human history to be referred to as the "age of information" (Sogolo, 1995 :99).
The foregoing· statement is further substantiated by Ofonagoro (1994: 1 I) in his assessment of info rmation in the contemporary society. According to him, "information i� the modern world has developed into an instrument for the managing and manipulating of minds, for coercion, fo r cultural imperialism and . rationalization by big brother fo r indefensible acts". The international med�a therefore m<�;ke maximum utilisation of information as a veritable tool fo r the perpetuation and maintenance of the status quo in the international information system.
From the.se assertions, one can establish that the mass media fu ndamentally play the role of information dissemination to the society. The media of mass communication daily provide series of information in fo rm of news bulletins, features and specialized television and radio programmes on various human endeavours. Besides, the information so provided, may be from national or international media channels. The new communication technology has made such information to simultaneously reach the various parts of the world fe w minutes afterthe occurrence of a particular event in a particular part of the globe.
Okunna (1994: I 08), further opined that, it is not only the news content of the mass media that informs; even entertainment provided by the mass media can be highly informative. She amplified her stand when she declares that, an episode of an
6 American or British soap opera or comedy tells us a lot about the type of life
Americans or British live, even though the programmes are primarily intended to
entertain. She further asserted that the information function of the mass mcd ia is a II embracing and indispensable fo r the meaningful existence of the society. Therefore, through their various contents, the mass media collect, store, process and disseminate opinions and comments which members of the society require in their socio-economic and political endeavours.
From the above scenano, one can therefore deduce that, the ·mass media, in performing all these information related functi�ns, raise issues and create awareness as well as conscientise people on various facets of life. Therefore, there is absolutely no doubt that, in the modern world, the mass media possess incredible power at the information• level.
Since N ige�ian independence on J st October, 1960 and at vanous stages of her development, be it political, economic. or social, the media was and still remain the greatest medium of public information and public awareness. Nigeria at various times undertook seri�s of measures in the fo rm of policy fo rmulation and implementation in respect of information gathering and dissemination both at the national and international planks. Successive administrations also encouraged the development of mass media institutions both print and electronic, fo r the purpose of public enlightenment and sensitisation of the public on various government policies such as, general elections, population census, war against the HIV I AIDS disease, international relations and diplomatic activities such as international image laundering, rejoinders on negative information about the country, establishing and maintaining regional co-operation 'Nith sister African countries in the field of information and communication as well as hosting international conferences on information and communication. I
7 The high point of such policy formulations was the approval of the National Mass Communication Policy on April 10, 1990. These measures were made, among others, on the realization that information from whichever perspective it is taken, constitutes a vital tool with which public policies are developed, streamlined and implemented.
It should however, be noted that, the various domestic as well as the international
'• policy measures put in place from the conceptualisation to actualisation by successive administrations, in respect of the roles of the Nigerian mass media and the international information flow leaves much to be desired. In view of the fo regoing, it is pertinent to examine more critically, the various information policy measures and institutional frameworks put in place at various stages of the development of the Nigeria information system in relation to its roles in the global information system.
At this point, it is pe11inent, to briefly discuss th'e fo rms and the structure· of the international mass communication industry. The propelling aim of this task is to provide an insight into the industry fo r proper understanding of the problem, which this study intends to examine.
The international media industry comprises of print and electronic channels of mass conununication. These include, radio, television and cable companies, news and fe ature agencies, film recording and distribution companies, among others.
The industry produces commodities in fo rm of information, be it news, fe atures, cultural product, entertainment etc, for sale. In this respect, large-scale companies have in the last few years taken over the industry by investing large capital, which· subsequently transformed it to unimaginable dimension.
8 The mass communication industry has two intenvoven branches, mimely: production and distribution. Production is dominated by the fe w industrialised states, which have the teclmological superiority and ability to invest in the industry. The industry is capital intensive and this explains why most of the developing countries are fo rced to rely on dominant countries of the northern hemisphere fo r news items from the
larger and influential inten1ational mass media organisatio��· On the distribution sector, many dev�loping countries concentrated �ore on this aspect of the industry. However, even in this aspect, they still largely depend on the services of production
on which they have little or no control. Even where the fa cilities exist, the resources · are meager, the technology crude while the staff are mostly inexperienced.
The industrialised states, which have the control of the media hardware, technology, . funds as well as experienced personnel or correspondents, have the concentration of
. most of the world's most influential media and wire service agencies. These include the "Big five" international news agencies namel : Reuters of London, Associated ' y ' Press - AP and United Press International -UPI both of U.S.A., Agence France · Presse AF-P of France and the Information and Telegraphic Agency of Russia ITAR. Furthermore, the activities of these agencies are further reinforced by such international short wave radio stations such as British Broadcasting Corporation BBC, Voice of America - VOA, Radio Duetsch Welle, Radio Moscow, and Radio Australia International, etc. Moreover, these transnational news agencies mainly vend stories and fe atures while the radio stations broadcast news and programmes. Some of these international radio stations strain themselves to tailor news and programmes that meet the peculiarities of the developing nations. For instance, the BBC, VOA, Radio Moscow and Radio Duetsch Welle, bro�dcast news and programmes specifically targeted to the Arabic, Hausa and Swahili audiences in the developing nations.
9 further to these, these radio stations are further reinforced by such powerful cable networks such as, Cable Network News -CNN, British Broadcasting Corporation TelevisiOn- BBC TV, Sky TV, VOA TV etc. It should however be pointed out that apart from presenting western and capitalist world views in their news and other programmes, these international media organisations are effectively manned by trained professionals imbued with a propound sense of their national interest. These to a very large extent therefore cumulatively enhanced their control and dominance in the international information system (Dazang, 1996: 139).
This position was vividly corroborated by Alleyne ( 1995 :69), who asserts that the quality of news flowing from the richer countries of the north to the south greatly exceeds the quality going in the other direction. He further maintains that the quality of news from the south to t,he north is lower than the reverse tlow. In
contrast however, there are high qualitative and quantitative flow of news between the richer nations.
MacBride et al (1980:59), also elucidated this position when they assert that the "Big five" news agencies and indeed other powerful international media organisations have particularly wide international roles due to the size and technological strength
of their systems of collecting and distributing news in many languages all over the· world. Each has offices in more than a hundred countries and employs full-time staff and part-time correspondents.
Structurally, the industry had under gone massive transformation since the middle of the 20th century. This is largely due to two inter-connected developments concentration and conglomeration. These developments further gave rise to a situation in which the potential reach and power of the dominant media corporations is greater now than it was before. Suffice it to say that concentration revolves around the extension of media ownership through partnership between the owners of diffe rent media organisations. It may also be through the acquisition of smaller
10 companies by big ones thereby concentrating ownership in fe w hands. It may further take the form of expanding the size of individual media organisations into several sectors. It may further involve concentration of attention exclusively on a particular aspect of print or electronic media organisation. Such large corporations fo rmed by joining together diffe rent firms, among others, gave rise to conglomerates with significant stakes in several media related industries and activities. Examples of these developments include Electrical and Musical Industry (EMl), a dominant fo rce in the British record industrj. The company also has substantial investments in films · and television arms of the mass media. Another typical example is the Columbia Broadcasting System - CBS, a US based company, which in addition to film production and distribution, has substantial controls in radio and television station�:
By way of transnationalisation and ·internationalization, the industry expanded I . activities of conglomerates into substantial sectors of the world communications h market. It s ould however be clearly established that the phenomenon known as transnationlisation depicts a situation in which a company especially a big one does business in different parts of the world, it is otherwise known as multinational corporations or transnational companies. This phenomenon has practically affected the communication industry. Indeed, it is therefore possible to identify industrial centres, which control production and services in the field of communication soft and hard wares, and the markets to which they are channelled. These transnational companies include ITT, Siemens, Paramount Pictures, Philips, the Japan giant, Sony, among others. These transnational companies have created models of productive efficiency with high-capacity technologies. These are companies with high capital intensity, high research and design cost as well as high rate of profits, which stimulates further expansion (Ibid, 106-107).
II It is essential to note that these companies specialises in the manufacture equipment . fo r the production, transmission and reception of radio and television news and programmes and are largely based in the industrialised countries. They are moreover, in control of the largest parts of operations in the international information systems. They also channelled their products to the developing nations, where they have substa�tial markets.
MacBride et al (Ibid: Ill) encapsulates these developments when they concluded that in the international communication industry, fe w numbers of predominant corporations based in the developed world with integrated interests in all aspect of production and distribution have become transnational in their operations. The transnationalisation of their operations created a relationship of dependence from the developing nations such as Nigeria, tbereby placing them at the receiving end in the international information 'system.
1.2 Statement of The Problem
It is apparent from the preceeding discussions that the present structure of the international information system is in no way commensurate with the existing trends in the dev�loping countries including Nigeria. Therefore as far as this study is concerned, the fo llowing questions are pertinent.
i) What are the factors responsible fo r the imbalances 111 the flow of international information as it at1ects Nigeria?
ii) What are the possible ways of enhancing Nigeria's role m the international information system?
1.3 Study Objectives
This study examines and evaluates Nigeria's position m the international information system, so as to determine its roles in the area of international
12 information flow. It identifies three interlocking objectives to set the focus Qf this study. They are: - i) To identify the policy gaps and implementation lapses in the area of. international information flow as it affects Nigeria.
ii) To determine appropriate policy shifts or changes and strategies fo r solving the problem.
iii) To map out realistic, implementable and attainable policy measures that would enhance Nigeria's role in the international information system.
1.4 Significance of the Study
Numerous positive benefits could be derived from the application of this study. Firstly, the study provides the missing links in policy fo rmulation and implementation as·it affects the Nigeria's roles in the international information system,
Secondly, the observations and recommendations made at the end of the study may serve as veritable inputs towards re-appraising the problem areas highlighted in this study, which may result in repositioning of Nigeria in the international information system.
Thirdly, scholars who are interested m the subject matter may find this research useful. In essence, it adds to the existing literature on the subject matter.
1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study
The scope of this research covers the period between 1962 and 2003. Th� scope is so designed because of the significance of the year 1962 as it relates to the Nigeria's role in the international information system. It was the year
· the federal government established Voice of Nigeria (VON) as the
13 international service arm of Radio Nigeria. This therefore epitomizes the beginning of the active participation of Nigeria in the international · information system. This study is also limited only to the electronic media, which includes radio, television, wire services/news agencies, cable stations,
• computers, especially computer internet and the telephone. However, relevant information outside the main crux of the subject under consideration shall be cited where necessary particularly fo r the purpose of references and elucidation of points.
1.6 Methodology of the Research
The methodology adopted fo r sourcing the data used in this study is basically
historical. However, secondary data have been collected fi·om the relevant existing literature directly or indirectly related to the subject under fo cus . . Thus, materials have been drawn from, textbooks, journals, magazines, press materials., speeches and communiques of relevant conferences and seminars. Other approaches used are personal observations and conducting of structured ' . ' oral interviews with academics and stakeholders in the information and communication fields. The assessment and analysis of all the data collected therefore fo rmed the findings and recommendations ofthis study.
1.7 Theoretical Framework
The frame of reference that fo rms the basis of this research is the dependency theory. The theory sees development in relation to production, distribution, consumption and exchange of material benefits between the more active and dominant role players and less active and dominated countries in the international economy.
The theory evolved out of the writings of V.I. Lenin Particularly his Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capita lism (1917) and Paul Baran's The Political Economy of Growth (1953). The theory was further developed in the 14 third world countries by intellectuals especially in Latin America in an attempt to offer alternative perspectives of development patterns in diffe rent countries. Its proponents in ttus respect include, Andre Gunder Frank, Samir Amin, Claude Ake, Walter Rodney, Giovann Arrighi and Thionio Dos Santos among others (Agber, 1994:25-27).
In a more definitive fo rm, several scholars gave vanous definitions of dependence theory. Thionio Dos Santos puts it thus: "A situation in which the economy of certain countries are conditioned by the development and expansion of another economy to which the fo rmer is subjected" (cited in : 16). Chukwuemeka, 200 I On the other hand, Dele Johnson ( 1980: 1 19) puts it thus: "Dependency is imperialism seen fr om the perspective of underdevelopment".
Qependency theorist therefore see dependency as a consequence of years of colonial conquest and subjugation as well as the rapacious exploitation of the domestic resources of the colonies. In the same vein, the super profits gained through such imperialist ventures like muitinational corporations therefore created a situation that colonial imperialism has left and which modern imperialism has perpetuated in developing nations.
These paradigms, which are largely of Marxist perspectives, seek to explain dependency from the point of view of backwardness, poverty, stagnation, and underdevelopment among others in the developing nations. This school of thought further posits that the dependency problem fu rther accentuated the domination of the weaker economies by the more affluentand stronger ones.
The proponents of these paradigms fwiher pointed out tbat incorporating developing nations into the world capitalist economy had significantly 15 contributed to the underdevelopment of such societies. The large amount of wealth both capital and human, transterred to the constantly expanding
metropolitan countries, contributed to the constantly shrinking developing nations. 1 mportantly, it should be noted that the developed world constantly enriches itself by siphoning of enormous amount of wealth from the newly incorpo'rated regions. This plundering not only contributed, on the one hand, to the development of European capitalism, but on the other hand deprived the peripheral nations of wealth needed fo r its development. This to a very large extent set in motion the "development of underdevelopment" as well as creating structural conditions, which prevented any other course than that of underdevelopment of developing nations, Hansen and Schulz ( 1981 :8 - 14).
lt is essential to note that, today, the developed nations that have attained a high level of economic and technological development do so by effe ctively manipulating and controlling the world economy in such a way that countries of the south remain (dependent on the West) poor and under-developed.
Similarly, Bode Onimade in his treatise Imperialism and Underdevelopment in Nige ria (1 983:230) also presents neo-colonialism as a major course of underdevelopment in Nigeria. He posits that Nigeria and hence Africa's underdevelop men� must be understood in its proper historical context of world imperialism.
He opined that it is the dialectical fu nctioning of this fundamental exploitative system that has simultenously generated development and affluence toBritain, while producing technological stagnation and backwardness in Nigeria and �fr ica in general.
16 Godwin Sogolo in his Media as an Instrument of Integration in the African Union (2001:131 - 143) examines the role of the media in the integration pr,ocess of African Union. He opined that the development of media in Africa was severely affected by the colonial history of the continent. He maintained that before the independence of most African countries, African media were fully under the control of the colonial partners; hence they were fo reign in ' orientation, character and to a very large extent content.
Importantly, the situation did not significantly change in the postcolonial Africa. The colonial heritage was further accentuated by the phenomenon of media imperialism in an unequal world information order. Although African countries fo ught and won political independence, western educ(;ltion and western com�unication technologies as well as the system of internatio_nal information management have continuously been used as powerful tool of intellectual manipulation and manipulation of indefensible acts by the developed countries.
In other words, most of the post colonial African states suffe r from colonial mentality in form of almost the wholesale acceptance of alien cultures and values beamed at our societies by the international media institutions such as,
CNN, BBC, Sky TV etc. This to a very large extent epitomizes the form of intellectual re -colonisation, which most African nations- including Nigeria are still grappling with. 1t can therefore be safely established that Afi·ican societies have been_ victims of recent processes of globalization in which the new communication technologies are playing the role of sustaining media and cultural imperialism.
17
' . Commercialization, and the growth ofconcentration of the international media in fe w hands further exacerbated the issues of dependency in the third world countries. In this respect, Sogolo was right to observethat:
In 1989, Time and Warner, merged to create the largest me9ia corporation in the world - merging assets worth over $8.7 billion. The last decade has witnessed the rise of"Media Mogul", Individuals who have amassed huge media organizations such Ted Turner, Silvio Berlusconi, Bertelsmannn and Rupert Murdoch (2001 : 1 39).
These mergers led to the rise of certain world powerful international media outfitssuch a� the CNN, CBC and Sky TV etc. Armed with the technological wherewithal, these institutions beam their programmes such as news and
. entertainments direct' to our homes. They also largely tainted these programm�s in line with their corporate and national interests. This scenario is greatly accentuated with the issue of media imperialism, which is fu rther oiled by the present day globalization.
There are however, �rguments in favor of me.dia globalization. One is that the new cornmunication technologies that go with it opened doors fo r the influx of products and services from the industrialized states, and by so doing increased production as well as development of identical products or their local brands. It is argued, fo r instance, that in the telecommunications industry in Africa, globalization has resulted in lower cost and higher flexibility. The central point of this argument is that even in a situation of dependency or imbalance, development can occur which, by implication, means that the conditions of the third w�rld nations are better under globalization than they would have been outside the system.
18 However, arguments against globalization are more forceful and more compelling. Sogolo (2001) posited that in spite of the proliferation of media avenues, the concentration of the media in fe w hands, .effe ctively strangles
• local, regional or national media production in countries that are economically disadvantaged and therefore ill -equipped to compete in the global media
market. It is true that export of media products from the industrialized nations to the third world countries enlarges sources of information and entertainment. It is however equally true that this phenomenon erodes the viabi'lity of local or I . . national media operations. The irony of the situation is that despite the advent h of the new inforrh�fig'n age, whia involves free!' ����!'.\��rid participation, ' information itself and· its technologies remained firmly under the control and , dominance of the economically powerful nations. This scenario further confirms and reinforces the dependence of the economically weak nations on . the ecorio·mically powerful nations in the international information system.
It is important to note that this researcher is not out to wholly condemn Africa relationship with the west. After all, even the countries in the northern hemisphere are interdependent on one another fo r their various needs. lt is what is inherent in this relationship, as it affects the international information flow, which the research wants to expose using dependency theory as a fra mework fo r analysis.
1.8 Conceptual Definitions
The fo llowing major concepts are employed in the ensuing discussions on this study. They are therefore defined within the contextual fi·amework of this research in order to facilitate proper comprehension of the subject matter under focus. These include the fo llowing: -
19 i) International Information Flow: It is used in the context of this study to describe the systematic transmission and simultaneous reception of
information in form ofword.s, pictures and/or numbers across the globe. Such transmission and reception are fa cilitated through the use of the electronic
• mass media fo r news and information dissemination. These include, television, radio, wire services, computer Internet, telephone and satellite systems.
International Information Syste m: It is used in the context of this study to connote the environment and the institutional frameworks· in which the international information flow operates. iii) MacBride Report: This is the report of an international commisston established by UNESCO in 1977 under the Presidency- of an Irish Journalist, Barrister and Politi€ian, Sean MacBride. The Commission was mandated to look into all the problems of communication and information at the global level. The commission which had sixteen members drawn from various parts of the world, submitted its report in 1979, which was published in 1980 by the UNESCO, under the title: "Many Voices, One World (Communication And Society: Today And Tomorrow").
iv) International Media , For the purpose of this study, international media is deemed to mean the electronic media (both radio and television) based in the developed · nations, particularly Europe and America. These include, Cable Network News (CNN), British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Columbia Broadcasting Services (CBS), Voice of America (VOA), France Radio International (FRI), Radio Duetch Welle, and other world reknowned transnational news agencies such as Reuters, United Press
International (UPI), · Associated Press (AP), Agence France- Presse
20 (AFP) and Information Telegraph Agency of Russia- Telegraph Agencies ofSoviet Union (JTAR-TASS).
21 RE.FERENCES
Alleyne, Mark D. (1995) International Power and International Communication. London: Macmillan Press Ltd. Dazang, Nick.(l 996)"New World Information Order: Challenges and Prospects fo r the media in Nigeria'' in The Media and the Twenty First Century. Abuja: Nigeria Union ofJourn alists. Golding, Peter (1974)The Mass Media. Essex: Longman Group Ltd. Howitt, Denis ( J 987)Mass Media and Social Problems. Oxford: Pergamon Press. MacBride, Sean et-al (eds.) (1980) Many Voices, One world: Communication and Society: Today and Tomorrow Paris: UNESCO. Ofonagoro, Walter (1994)Nigeria Handbook on Information and Culture. Lagos: Sahel Publishing and Printing Co. Ltd. Okunna, Chi:nyere S. (1999)lntroduction to Mass Communication, (Second Edition). Enugu: Second Generation Books.
22 CHAPTER TWO
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter sets out to review some of the existing literature that deals with the • various issues and perspectives surrounding the international flow of information in
the way t.hey relate to the subject ofthis research either directly or indirectly. This is to.enha nce our grasp and appreciation of the subject matter under fo cus.
The predominant roles of the. international electronic media, news agencies as we ll as the transnational companies in the international information system are no longer in doubt. What is debatable in this regard, are the various dimensions and the extent of the inputs made by these organiz;:ttions aided by the new communication technologies in the global info rmation system. These among others are the tasks of this chapter, which is sub-divided into the fo llowing sub headings: -
2.2 The It:Jedia and the new communication technologies .
The development, power and the increasing sophistication of the new communication technologies have tremendously revolutionized the ·media industry. The speed with which information now travels across the world; through incredibly powerfu l communication gadgets have constituted the media into what is now referred to as the 'information super highway'. This phenomenon brought the entire world into what a renowned communication scholar Herbert Marshal Macluhan described as the 'global village'.
23 This account greatly concur with that of Maida in his New Technology and the Transformation of Communication Process: Challenge s fo r the Nigerian Media in the 2 P1 Century(19 96:114). He decJares that:
The most striking fe ature.of the new communication teclmologies is that the size of the audience of the mass media has tremendously · increased the world over. This is because the number of the people hitherto untouched by the mass media has dramatically decreased. These new technologies and dimensions to it make the mass media powerful in reach and simultaneity, which remained unparalleled by any medium.
Maida argues that there has been a significant increase in the nun1ber of media organizations particularly as a result of the new communication technologies, which makes news gathering, dissemination and �eception less cumbersome. In other words, the new communication technologies provide the wherewithal, which are necessary for vibrant anc;i effective mass media institution.
There is absol��ely no doubt about the fact that the computer·· internet is one of the most outstanding communication technologies used by the media especially in the developed nations for information gathering and dissemination.
Bell (1998: 11) examines various functions and applications of computer in relation to information gathering, processing, packaging and dissemination. He went further . to observe that this fo rm of technologies is a collection of computer networks that interconnects millions of computers around the globe. It has vast services of information that is constantly changing and expanding, depending on the subject in question. Each of the computers connected performs one or more of the fo llowing . functions: (a) Receive information fr om other computers. (b) Send Information to other computers. (c) Direct information coming from an emitting computer to a specific receiving computer. 24 One ofthc major fe atures of the internet is its international networks, which connects all subscribers who are hooked on to it into a World -Wide -Web (www) of computer related services (Bell, .1998). Moreover, Okigbo (1995: 101- 111) opined that the Inten1et otherwise known as the information superhighway is an attempt to provjde a super link through which many networked services embodying print and audio information are provided. This therefore offe rs Internet services to homes, offices and personal computers tlu·ough a teiephone line.
Closely related to the above, is the electronic mail (e-mail). This is also a vital tecPt1ology fo r newsgathering and dissemination. This device entails electronic transfer of information•either nationally or globally through the use of computer Internet. Sequel to this therefore, distances as an obstacle to information . gathering arid dissemination has been removed thereby enhancing the operations of media organizations.
Indeed, .the computer (and its related services) has significantly revolutionized information processing and dissemination. Virtually all the media industry in the developed world, fo r instance, have been computerized. Besides, in the entire journalism practice ranging from newsgathering, editing, and production to dissemination, the computer . has become the most significant fe ature. The utilization of the computer in media practice makes the whole activity speedy and less cumbersome and error -proof (Maida 1996: 119).
Facsimile technology is another form of new communication technology that has greatly impacted on the activities of the media industry. This is a higher automated technology, which facilitates the transmission of information such as 25 syrrybols, pictures, diagrams, handwritings, digitalized voice, etc. to be similarly re-produced several kilometers away from the source (Maida, Ibid: 121). This
technology has greatly ensured the smooth operation of media practitioners. for
instance, it enables them to speedily send in1ormation to their various offices within nations or across the globe.
Added to the above, is the issue of Bulletin Board System (BBS) as a means of effective information gathering and dissemination, Maida ( 1996) rightly observed that this is the technology in which the activities of media organizations to which members of the network are electronically linked ensures easy access to information by any member of the network. It also ensures tree flow and . exchange of information among the co-operating media organizations.
Perhaps, one communication gadget that has significantly revolutionized information gathering and dissemination is the satellite. In recent times, the growth of'the planetary satellite has been spontaneous. Indeed, this has reduced the conventional technology fo r transmission and broadcasting of information, thereby enhancing efficiency as well. Satellites are synchronous man-made objects placed some. 35,700 km above the earth and aJigned to the orbital velocity matching the earth gravitational rotation. From their planetary positions, they gath�r and beam info rmation to the earth through domestic earth stations, which are mounted in the recipient countries. "They have greatly fa cilitated long distance communication largely because they have been able to circumvent most of the limitations of topology and land-line fa cilities that had hitherto inhibited the. international flow of information between countries" (Agber, 1992:246).
In another perspective, Mohammed in his book New Communication Technologi es and Society (1990:13-14), rightly observed that "satellites are
26 usually solar-powered transmitters that are launched into space fo r the purpose of information gathering, processing, and transmission back to earth. They receive signals from ground or earth stations. These signals are then amplified and sent back to earth and homes via ground station." In the same vein, Agber, (1992 :
• 247) posits that satell,ites "have in the main become indispensable element of communication circuits in the same fa shion as news agencies, the computers fo r application in the press, radio and television broadcasting, telephone and telecommunication links etc."
Owing to the plethora of uses to which satellite can be put, many countries have been galvanized into acquiring the satellite facilities. This assertion has been
vividly captured by MacBride et � ( 1980:63) when they concluded that: "from 1957 to 1979, fo r ins�ance, about 2, I 00 satellites have been launched and this technology_ has been an integral part of so many circuits ... news agencies and press, radi(fand television broadcasting, telephone and telecommunication units":
Agber in his work "Direct Broadcasting Satellite: Threat to the Emergence of a National Film Industry," (1992:247) summarizes some of the uses and application of satellite communications as fo llows:
a) "The distribution of programmes over large expanses of land through transmission from powerful earth stations to satellites in· space and back. These earth stations are linked to local television outlets or production centres hooked unto satellite dishes ...
b) They have been used in conjunction with cable television, in business, homes and banks fo r cash point encashment, telebanking, telex and te les hopping.
27 c) Facsimile services w�ere printed or hard copy materials are delivered to home ... offices or media houses that are hooked unto telephones".
It can be deduced from the above that communication satellites ensure data
• gathering, processing and distribution to the target audience both nationally and at global level. It has to a very large extent, enhanced the activities of the electronic media particularly radio and the television stations. ln recent times, the Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) systems have been the most widely used and efficient method of international radio and television broadcasting. The DBS system provides 24-hour services to international subscribers of news and other programs in the world. As the name implies, DBS, entails sending sound and pictures through satellite direct to subscriber's premises. They are amplified and processed via Satellite 'dishes' or antenna. Today, the DBS has
become . a very powerful means of international info rmation dissemination ' .withna mes like CNN, BBC TV, Sky TV, CBS, etc. playing dominant roles.
It is therefore noteworthy that the satellites are greatly playing very significant
. . role ip the international information system by changing the mode of radio and television broadcasting and bringing the medium to isolated communities · of the world in place of terrestrial transmitters which are more crude and cumbersome compared to satellites. Therefore, with their amazing capacity, communication satellites have expanded the power and reach of the international media in respect of information gathering and dissemination.
From the fo regoing, one .can deduct that though the new communication technologies have variously demonstrated their overwhelming power to transform the entire pattern of exchange and circulation of the internationa,l information by enabling practically every body who wishes to acquire 28 information on any topic that is disseminated by any country. They are however, largely beneficial to the industrialized nations because of their monopoly of the technological know-how and sound economic base among others.
As we, noted earlier on, the fo rm and application of the new communication technologies largely revolves around the usage of fu nctional and digitalized telephone system, the effective use of computer Internet as well as the use of communication satellites especially the DBS system for effective international broadcasting.
It needs to be pointed out that, under these circumstances, the new comn1unication technologies have giVen the industrialized states the wherewit}Jal fo r control of the international info rmation. The situation in the developing nations looks quite diffe rent. The issue of inadequate and inefficient telecommunication system can go a long way in· illustrating this point. For instance, the problem of public telephone network which has fo r long shifted from analogue to the digital system, which can handle ditterent information ranging from written data, diagrams, texts, pictures etc. are grossly inadequate and where telephone lines exist either at homes, officers etc. they are mostly erratic or completely none -functional.
Similarly, in his work The Order of North-South Information Dichotomy in Post Cold War Era {1996), L.U. Uche shares the same conviction that the new world communication and information technology that are mostly invented, owned, controlled and monopolized by the industrial North made the world more interdependent than ever. But unfortunately, it has become an interdependence of unequal partners. Suffice it to say that this unequal 29 partnership further emphasizes the danger and difficulty of true exchange, equality and balanced flow of international information that would be beneficialto all stakeholders .
. In another instance, Uche (1996: 285) concluded that, to many Third World peoples, the development of world c·ommunication technologies and the management of the world infonnation resources are clearly in fa vour of the developed world; which quantitatively accounted fo r less of the world population. It is as a result of this phenomenon that most of the third world countries argued that they are negatively portrayed before the international audience of the international media. This is largely due to their possession of, and effective utilization of the new communication technologies, among others.
2.3 The Struct'ure and Operations of the International Media
) . A fe w powerful and influential transnational news agencies and some other international media institutions based in Europe and America, play a dominant role and monopoly over the flowof International information. The size, reach, technological advancement as well as strong financial footing of these media outfits placed them on a vantage position over and above their counterparts in the third world countries who largely depend on these media outfits fo r information even among themselves.
The monopolization of the international information fl ow by these transnational media organizations is developed and sustained with the suppo,rt of the international power structure, with the aim of controlling international
30 information, which is considered as one of the vital instruments of modern society. The nature of their activities is such that they have to operate outside their own countries, with an immense impact and influence on the very many countries in which they operate (Allyne, 1995 :78).
The fo regoing assertion is substantiated by Somavia in his work The World Communications Control by the Transnational Power Structure ( 1976). According to him, the control of that key instrument of contemporary society, information, is the vehicle fo r transmitting values and life styles to third world countries which stimulate the type of consumption and the type of society necessary to the transnational system as a whole.
. The structure and operations of the world most influential and powerful news agencies whose roles in international information gathering and dissemination in the global information system is profoundly enormous.
These are the international mass media organizations that professionalise m international news vending. They have extensive global networks and employ the services of correspondents in various parts of the world to gather, write, edit news stories, commentaries, and other materials and repotts to their headquarters, where it is then disseminated by electronic means to a variety of print and electronic media organization, diplomatic missions, fi nancial organizations and .other clients across the globe. These agencies also employ the services of part -time correspondents - stringers-to supply news stories or fe atures in a geographical location not covered by the agency's permanent correspondents. The stringers usually add variety to the · agency's news pool as well as widen the coverage of an agency's news service.
These organizations are vastly experienced in the art of information collection and dissemination, they also have extensive world network than the individual news
31 '• media institutions ,in the developing nations. This is because they are well established, professional1y sound and technologically up-to-date as wel1 as being big in size and reach. They also enjoy a very large patronage, as they are able to attract influential mass media organizations, financial institutions and individuals as clients across the globe. Indeed, this assertioh was corroborated by Mark. D. Allyne, in his u b�ok International Power and International Comm nication (1995: 69), when he established that:
' . The powerful international media Outfits located in Europe and America,' . notably the big five international news
agencies, namely, Reuters, United _ Press International (UPI), Associated Press (AP), Agence France-presse (AF-P), and TASS and global TV Networks such as BBC, VOA and CNN, have large concentration of their news correspondents and clients in "Major Capitals" ofthe world, particularly London, New York, Paris, Washington, Tokyo · Moscow, etc.
From the above, it can be established that,. the dominant roles played by these
a · international medi or�anizations is la_rgely oiled by- their extensive international networks which is enhanced by globalization- of information and possession and proper deployment of the necessary wherewithal to operate in such an environment. In contrast, the situation in developing nations, Nigeria inclusive, is a reversed case and the dependency situation on information on the part of the developing nations become clearly apparen�.
In this respect, the international news production and distribution is one of the most essential aspects relevant fo r any discussion that relates to global information flow.
. This is so because it is through these two inter-twined aspects that the international media fundamental1y operates in the international information system.
32
/ This situation therefore fo rced the developing nations to depend on the dominant industrialized nations who invest heavily abroad in infrastructure and expertise, fo r news and other programmes on radio. This scenario therefore resulted into the
• monopolization of international information by the powerful international media, which therefore epitomizes the absolute control of the global news flows by these organizations.
Indeed, this position was vividly corroborated by Al1yne ( 1995 :69), when he ' declared that the quality and quantity of news flowing from the developed countries of the northern hemisphere greatly surpasses the quality and quantity of news flowing fr om south to north. There are however, highly qualitative and quantitative flows of news between the richer nations. This phenomenon could fu rther be appreciated takiryg into cognizance the issue of news coverage as well as correspondence io"cation in the international information system.
Harris, in his work Hierarchy and Concentration in International News Flow, (1974: 1 95), observed that, it is not in ·anyway contestable that fo reign correspondents are heavily located in western Europe and America but sparsely located in the developing nations particularly Afi·ica. To this end, if there are fe w fo re ign correspondents in the developing world, it is not likely that the information on these countries would be relayed on more ways other than sources called on telephone lines or faxed messages by a stringer of the international media organization concerned. This development greatly contributes to misinformation on the developing world.
In contrast to the above, due to large concentration of International media organizations and correspondents in Europe and America, news on Africa fo r 33 instance comes through London, Washington, New York, Moscow, Cologne and Paris -the major news centers of the world.
ln addition to this, the maJor news agencies and other international media ' organizations pay more attention t� "maj or capitals" of the world because they consider them as important sources of news and major spots fo r exchange of in�ernational information. They also consider them as places where major international decisions are taken on world politics, economy etc. Closely related to the above is the fact that in. the fa ce of difficulties in obtaining accurate supply of domestic news relating to other neighboring countries as a result of poor communication fa cilities, inadequate correspondent networks and financial I restrictions among others, the media in the developing countries are practically unable to do anything other. than to use the news supplies flowing fro m the Euro American international media organizations with their extensive networks and total ' media superiority (Harris , 1974:62).
From the fo regoing, one can deduct that the concentration of and the proper deployment o.f the necessary wherewithal in a few industrialized nations at the level of international information system and media network, delineates and maintains · i unequal distribution of media correspondence, news coverage ard by extension absolute control and regulation of the international news production and distribution by the Euro-American international media. A phenomenon that has had a profound impact on the way and manner through which the developing nations are portrayed by the international media.
34 2.4 Nigeria as portrayed by the International media
The international media which apparently had upper hand compared to the media in the developing nations particularly Africa, used pejorative adjectives and stereotypes
• in portraying t,he images ofthe Third World nations to their international audiences, in the most pernicious and prejudicial manner. In this respect, the Third World is portrayed as areas synonymous to: earthquakes, military coups, economic and political instability, catastroph, disease, malnutrition, HJV/AJDS, bureaucratic inefficiency, hunger and poverty, ilJiteracy as well as official corruption among others. The Western Media onslaught against Africa has to a very large extent continued to dent the images of the peoples of the southern hemisphere who are . portrayed as lesser beings whose entire life is engulfed by successive crisis (Uche, 1996:4).
This sordid picture and resentments against it led to one of the great�st debates in the contemporary world history-The New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) debate, which has as one of its fundamental aims the creation of platform for fa ir and balanced international information flow. Jndeed, it is disheartening to note that more than two decades after the adoption of the MacBride report and its publication by UNESCO, the international media still remain unrepentant and unequivocal in denting the images of developing nations, like· Nigeria. In the light of these, some examples would attest to the assertions.
The Voice of America (VOA) which is one of the international media outfit that contributes to the bad images of the developing nations in the eyes of the world, told its international audience in its Day Break Africa report of 25 May 1992 at 06.30 hours GMT, That: "The people of Burkina Faso, the poorest nation in Africa are going to the polls today to elect a president and members of a new national assembly ) . 35 in the first ever democratic election in 14 years". One wonders if the above news item on Burkina Faso would have lost its, accuracy, authenticity and credibility if the VOA had not negatively portrayed Burkina Faso as the poorest nation in Africa (Uche, 1996:44).
' This is therefore a· typical posture of arrogance and social insensitivity of the intemational media against Africa. It should be vividly pointed out that such posture had fu lly succeeded in widening the North -South dichotomy characterized by the materials richness of the North and material poverty ofthe South�.
International media attacks against Nigeria came in the fo rm of image denting, · campaign of calumny, news blackout on positive developmental projects/policies, trump-up charges of anti-democratic tendencies and human right abuse. In addition to these, the international media portrayed Nigeria as a land of organized economic crimes, a nation where corruption thrives and other unprintable stereotyped news.
The activities ofthe Ecowas Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) is typical area in which , . the attitude of the international media agents to Nigeria was apparent. The ECOMOG I peace keeping missions to Liberia as well as Sierra Leone, under the able leadership of Nigeria stands out as one of the best missions can·ied out by any military organization in the world. This position can be attested to, taking into cognizance the successful installation of democratic governance in the two West Africa countries.
B.M. Zaki in his study Western Media and Nigerian Development, (1998:9), rightly observed that, the CNN in its 30 minutes program INSIGHT of July 17,1997, downplayed the area of successes and achievements of the ECOMOG operations in Liberia and emphasized on points of irrelevance. Throughout the program, NIGERIA was not mentioned and ECOMOG was only referred to as the military and the only 36 interview granted to a Nigerian fo r less than five minutes was that of General Victor Malu. The programme dwelt on interviews with fo rmer US President J immy Carter
and US Ambassador to Liberia, both of whom are insignificant as far as ECOMOG operations and subsequent restoration of peace and order in Liberia were concerned .
• Indeed, the world would have known a lot if the issues addressed to Jimmy Carter and US Ambaslador to Lib�fia were addressed to General Victor Malu who had the backing of those ECOW AS countries that put together ECOMOG to lead the operations as the filed commander. On the other hand, the world would have learned a lot if the CNN Interviewed the then Nigerian minister of fo re ign affairs, ChiefTom
Ikimi or his colleague in the .Ministry of Information, Dr. Walter Ofonagoro or even their colleagues in any of the ECOW AS states. This is a case of down playing Nigeria's role in her effo rts to achieve regional peace, taking into consideration the human, material as well as .the enormous financial resources expended on such a miSSIOn.
However, one is not surpris�d by such an attitude taking into cognizapce the fa ct that Nigeria being the major role player in this mission, under the leadership of late General Sani Abacha, does not fa ll into the good books of the Euro-America nations. But common sense warrants that credit should be given to where it is due with no caveat attached. What is fa ctual is the fa ct that Liberia and Sierra Leone are today enjoying democracy as a result of the ECOMOG operations in both countries.
Ironically, the Euro-American nations vilifYing Nigeria through the international media are at the same time·promoting miJitary dictatorship in other parts of Africa, where their wishes are the command of those nations. A typical example was the case of Zaire (Now Democratic Republic ofCongo). The US groomed late Mobutu Sese Seko, who ruled fo r over 30 years, to topple the popular government of Patrice Lurnumba. When Mobutu eventually took over power, Belgium (Zaire's fo rmer 37
.. colonial masters) and US virtually ran the country, helping themselves to the abundant diamond and other mineral resources at the country. This scenario is what late Sam lkoku (1995:37) once referred to as "if you are serving them, you are good. If you are begging ·to ask them questions you are a bad man and therefore, deserves the scourge and assault of their medi� ".
One of the pej orative adjectives and stereotypes in which the developing nations are portrayed by the international media, is that of a continent of coup de' tat. It should however, be pointed out that evidence abound to attest that some· of the Euro American nations had hands in aiding coups in some developing nations, especially if their economic interest is in a state ofje opardy.
The role of the British g0vernment in sponsoring. the Dimka aborted coup, which ) . claimed the life . of General Murtala Mohammed is a case in point. The 'crime' of Late General .rvturta]a was that he headed a military government and went to the
r 'extreme' of trespassing into the British economic interest and championing complete African independence as well as completely denouncing imperialism in its entirety
These cumulatively led to the February 13, 1976 aborted coup that led to the assassination of late General Murta]a Mohammed. From the British angle, the primary aim was to safeguard its economic interest not only in Nigeria but in Africa as a whole. This could ha_rdly be achieved with assertive African leaders like General I Murtala Mohammed alive.
This scenario was succinctly captured by Oj igbo, in his book 200 Days to Eternity (1979: 183), when he posits. that: "Nigerians suspected British and United States of
America of playing a double role and involvement in the abortive coup in which
38 �� I General Murtala Mohammed was assassinated" In the same vem, Oj igbo cited Adamu, who wrote in the .Sunday Times of February 22, 1976, that:
The British High Commission knows more than it admitted it knew. For example, it took the British High Con1missioner three hours to alert the Federal Government authorities that Dimka had been to see him. This was enough time to appraise his home government ofthe progress ...of the daylight vandalism
The United States of America had also been directly implicated in the assassination of General Murtala. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), had been accused in the coup plot.
Agbakoba 0. (1984), furtherel ucidates that:
T he CIA chief in Lagos in 1975 - 1977, Thomas Arthern, confessed while in detention in Tehran, Iran, that he made huge payments to some Nigerian opinion leaders and that one of the Nigerians paid has extensive business operation in telecommunications and satellite industry (cited in Alkali, 1996: 133-134).
The above was aimed at facilitating the coup. Therefore, one can hardly absolve either British or America in the coup as both worked hands in glove and were certainly impressed with the outcome of the coup-the assassination of General Murtala. This is the British and America that extensively used the· international media networks to portray the Africa as a continent of coups and political instability, while at the same time they aided and abetted it, depending principally on their economic interest.
39 On the issue of corruption, the internationalmedia portray the third world as a corrupt society where things like bribery to obtain some fa vour in public office are practiced. A society where public treasury are embezzled by the
leaders and a society where political corruption is entrenched. One should ,
• however, note that the worst fo rms· of political, moral as well. as the economic
corruption are perpetrated in the Euro-American nations in such a dimension that surpasses that of the third world.
M.N. Alkali, in his work Corruption: the International Dimensions (1 995:239), observed that most societies in the Western World, such corrupt practices linked to the developing nations are not even listed among the major problems of their nations because they have become endemic and almost part of their lives. Contravention of custom and immigration laws through official agents of government, getting things done through bribery and fa vours to officialsch arged with specific responsibilities are issues of daily occurrence. These has already become an accepted way of doing things in the so-called developed societies of the world and are therefore considered nowhere near their concept of corruption. , .
Alkali ( 1995: 240-241 ), further elucidates these points when he asserts that, the portrayal of the developing nations as corrupt societies is a child's play compared to the international corruption taking place in the developed world. These international deals are carried out by governments, private business
syndicates, commission agents who fly from one capital of the world to another, others are international oil and arms companies, which are fo und to have been more notorious· in this International crimes. Added to these, are some national leaders who use sophisticated international instruments of transactions through banks and the other financial institutions as well as the 40 multinational corporations. These deals are further backed by financial and security intelligence groups who plan and execute these transactions. More · than that, the developing countries are sometimes the targets of such deals and those of them that are continuously in a state of crisis are fo rced to look up fo r
. arms and ammunitions, armoured tanks, air force jets etc, which they are not in a position to produce. Added to these, the targeted developing countries
have their local sytidi.cates who are always ready to do their bidding fo r the fa t
' fo reign accounts opened and maintained fo r them.
It should be noted that the worst fo rm of human rights abuses is practiced in the Euro-American nations. The CNN on, January 26, 1996 informed the world thus: "A fe male prisoner remained handcuffe d in Britain while in
labour, in the process of giving birth to a baby" ( CNN, Ja nuary 261h, 1996). It is ironical to note that on October 22nd 1 995 CNN showed how one Todd Townsend, a Black American and 60 others were fr amed-up on drug-related charges by the Philadelphia Police in the US. On Saturday, June 15, 1996 CNN carried a programme which revealed how one judge David Lanier sexually molested nineteen women in Diesburg, TN, USA and despite overwhelming evidence, was released after serving only two out of a twenty five year sentence. The reason is that rape is not a "Federal Crime" in the US. All the victims remain distraught while two of the women have attempted suicide. This is. the America that does not get revealed to others. These
incidents had a singular cruelty to it and one wonders··where lies the much - ta)ked about idea of human rights abuse of which the developing nations, especially Nigeria is accused of perpetrating.
The stereotyped repotts by the international media against Nigeria particularly .as it effects Press Freedom was clearly captured by Professor David Flint, 41 Chainnan of World Association of Press Council (W APC). He told participants at the first African regional conference of the world Press Council at Abuja that there was pressure from the international community that the conference should not hold in Nigeria due to alleged human right violation
• most especially Press Freedom. However Flint observed that "When we arrived the situation was diffe rent from what we were made to believe" (Zaki, 1998:6).
It is ironical to note that what amounts to the international media's allegation oflack of Press Freedom and censorship in Nigeria is certainly not worse than . ' . the situation in the developed nations. For instance, when in May 1981, a West German Women's Weekly, Die Aktuelle Printed love telephone . discussions between Prince Charles and Lady Diana Spencer, the ed itors were threatened with imprisonment and fine. Prime Minister Magarette Thatcher condemned the publication in the parliament as "despicable" while the British government banned the importation of the Die Akluelle. What a Press Freedom? In addition to these, until recently, the voice of Terry Adams, the ) .
head .of Sinn Fein, the political wing of Irish Republican Army, was outlawed . fT om being heard in any of the electronic media in Britain in the name of
' national interest, while Independent Television Commission censors all independent television programmes (Zaki, 1998:7).Also in 1979, the U.S Supreme Court gave ruling that gives the Police the right to a "surprise news room search". (Time, May 18, 1981 ).
The international media jaundiced reports against Nigeria extend to other aspects of human endeavour. They. present Nigeria to the international audience as a nation where all fo rms of economic crimes under the sun are perpetrated. Ofonagoro ( 1995), vividly captured this when he cited a report in 42 London Daily Mail captioned: "The Enemy within" which summarily described Nigeria as a nation of organized criminals w4,o:
Must not he trusted with jobs, Business opportunities or other routine access to basic social opportunities in Britain ... even Nigerian marriage contracted in Britain are not to be trusted as ninety percent of them are fraudulent.
This IS the international media that sees nothing fu ndamentally good on Nigeria in particular and the developing nations in general.
I . Interhational media also exaggerated the level of corruption in Nigeria. But a critical look at the western governments clearly shows diffe rent types of hi
tech corruption. Zaki's Cla�sic work on western media and Nigerian Development (199'8), is superb. He writes about various aspects that relates to the way and manner the international media portray Nigeria to the international audience and the impact of such negative and stereotyped reports. In part two of his work, he delves at length on the level of corruption as ·exaggerated by the inte'mational media. He however counter some of these exaggerations when he declared thus:
British ruling party, the labour party, promised in its campaign manifesto that it would outlaw the promotion oftobacco products. J\ndon November 4, 1997, when it assumed office it announced that British would support a proposed European Union ban on tobacco promotion ...but would insist that fo rmu Ia one ... that is being promoted by Mr. Bernie Eclestone, who donated almost 10% of the labour party's campaign fu nds ... be granted exemption.
43 According to British member of parliament John Maphes "I don't think there was any conscious corruption here" Time (November 24, 1997:40). One can deduct from the above that in the western world corruption exist in two diffe rent dimensions conscious and unconscious. In whatever colour it is
• painted, it should be firmlypoi nted out that corruption is corruption.
Probably conSCIOUS, political and moral corruption could be fo und in the J governments of two fo rmer U.S Presidents Richard Nixon an� Bill Clinton.
We have noticed how scandalous practices rocked the United States presidency. For instance, the Water Gate scandal, which tarnished the image
and reputation of fo rmer US P.resident, Richard Nixon and turned into an embarrassment of the entire American nation, is a case in point. The immediate past US President Bill Clinton also went through the ordeal of moral corr.uption as a result of his scandalous sex affair with Monica Lewinsky and sexual harassment of Paula Jones, which put a very big question on his moral legitimacy to occupy such an exalted office. The scenano painted above clearly depicts the moral bankruptcy and political corruption ofthe Euro-American leaders. (Alkali, 1995:238-239).
Another example worth noticing in this act of mischief by the international media,was the much publicized "60 minutes" programme produced by the agents of American CBS who came into Nigerian in 1993, with concealed electronic gadgets to investigate Nigeria's corrupt practices. These agents . were at the airport, seaports, passport offices and other government establishments fo r their nefarious acts. This has shown how desperate the international media institutions are, to portray to the world that Nigeria is corrupt. 44 The case of Zimbabwe even before the March presidential election was 2002, also very glaring. The country was deptcted by mternational media reports as yet another African. country heading into· anarchy. The media depicted the
' images ofwhite Zimbabwe as the victims of Robert Mugabe's "misrule" who con-fiscated their fa rmlands and chased them out of the country. The country was also portrayed as being under chaos and mob rule with a collapsed economy. These media images, which were largely portrayed by the BBC TV, were distorted informations against the real happenings in the country.
Added to these, the various reports made available by some observer groups
during the March 2002 presidential election showed that the election was legitimately held. For instance, the South African observer group made their
' post election report, which was transmitted live by the Arrican independent
television (AIT) on 13 march, 2002. The group maintained that, though there were reports of intimidation in some parts of the country, the election was freely held in an orderly manner, under legitimate electoral laws of the country, and that the people of Zimbabwe have talked and therefore, the world should respect their verdict. This position was also endorsed by the Nigeria observer mission headed by fo rmer head of government Chief Ernest Shonekan.
However, contrary to all these verdicts, the Commonwealth Observer Mission, , headed by the former Nigerian head of state General Abdusalami Abubakar, maintained that the election was characterized by irregularities. This position was attested to by General Abubakar in the BBC Hausa service rep01t of
Friday 15 march 2002 transmitted at about 14 hours GMT. Moreover, despite
45 all the overwhelming evidences, the Commonwealth went ahead to suspend Zimbabwe fro m the organization.
. . These and many more 'crimes' such as the land issue as it affe cts whites in
• Zimbabwe earned the regime of Robert Mugabe the scourge and assaults of the international media especially the BBC radio and television
The international media portrayed Nigeria as drug producer and consumer and our major international airports as poi!"lts of entry and exit to the drug barons. Tt is an established fact that, Nigeria has taken all necessary measures to stop this destructive _business. Nigeria has given fu ll cooperation to the United Nations International Drug Control Programme to control illicit drug trafficking. In addttion to these, in April 1996, a Vienna-based United Nation Agency, International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) released a report praising Nigeria Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) fo r its effo rts iti curbing drug trafficking in Nigeria. Nigeria has also participated in all major conferences held by anti-drug agencies in various parts of the world. These · include the ones held in Kenya and Geneva in May 1997 (Zaki, 1998:49).
All these are not 'eonsidered as tangible efforts towards Nigeria's war against drug offences. According to Usman (1997), the belittling of Nigeria's effort against drug-related crimes is as a result of the international power politics and conspiracy, whiCh is largely characterized by the super power agenda which, he says, has made meaningful international cooperation against drug related crimes difficult. In the same vein, Usman posits that:
What the U.S. is implementing on the international level is mainly the application of its domestic law on drug and not on the basis of any collective
46 $ decision as such (Thisday News paper, 20/3/97,P.4).
Similarly, fo rmer chairman of the NDLEA General Musa Bamaiyt (rtd.) in a press briefing asserts that:
While Nigeria' s nat ional effi>rtsare tangible and backed by statistics, the U.S. had, instead of addressing the insatiable drug appetite of its citizens and cooperate with other nations, choose to misdirect attention to the small shortcomings of other nations (Cited in Zaki, 1998:49-50).
It is therefore apparent from these media onslaught that the international media down played the areas of positive endeavour and give prominence to trivialities and negative aspects ofNigeria's effort against drug-related crimes
In addition to all this tmage denting against the developing nations, like
Nigeria, . i:nost of the international media and their home states pride themselves in portraying Nigeria's culpability in the crime of drug traf1icking than the Latin American countries, the USA and other European nations that produce and consu'me the drugs in volumes (Alkali, 1995).
From these assertions, it is pertinent to note the observation made by the MacBride Report on the distortion of news by the international media. This is to furthercorroborate the issues raised. The report observed that:
Distortion of news ... occurs when inaccuracies or untruths replace authentic facts, or when a slanted interpretation is woven into the news report ... through the use of pejorative adjectives and stereotypes ... This occurs where events of no real importance are given prominence and when the superficial or the irrelevant are �nterwoven with facts of real significance (MacBride, 1980: 157).
47 The irony of it all is that most of the developing nations that are negatively portrayed particularly in Africa were once colonized either by Rritain or France and their human and material resources were highly exploited. This led
to the industrial development of Euro-American nations and their current � status among the Group of Seven (0.7) most industrialized nations in the world.
It is imperative at this juncture to briefly highlight and examine some of the fa ctors that contributed to the imbalances in the international information
flow.
The issue of existing imbalances in the flow,of international information is no ) . longer 'disputable. What is debatable and important in this respect is the
magnitude and nature of the at1endant fa ctors responsible fo r such imbalances and inequalities. Some scholars opined that the international media represent the interest of their audience in the tleveloped nations. Similarly, Muhammed ( 1 974) observed that:
Average European ingrained perception of Africa is that of people incapable if orderly and national development. He therefore, expect only news about coups, civil wars, demonstrations, rapes and so on !Tom ... Africa (Cited in Zaki, 1998:1 03).
Consequent upon the above, the international media in order to balance their pocket have to play along these lines in both their reportage and their interpretation of events on AtTica. This largely explains why positive development aspects in Africa are hardly mentioned because of their insigniticance to the majority of Euro-American audience.
48 In another perspective, Guback et al m their work Transnationa I Communication and Cultural Industries: Reports and Papers on Mass
'
Communication (1992:8-1 1 ), observed that transnational Corporation influence the international media through advertising control and banking fa cilities among others, thus tremendously transforming information and communication structure. This is so because of the availability of strong financial base and sophisticated management resources available to them.
Usman (1996), however observed that the reasons for this external hostility are not fa r fe tched. According to him "Nigeria's growing stature is a threat to so many interests and adventure". This phenomenon to a very large extent make the western ·capitalist economies designed and sustained policy , strategies that are aimed at greater globalization of the world in terms of . dependency relationship irrespective of national boundaries and sovereignty.
Grumci (1972), agrees with the above account when he pointed out that western Europe and America have embarked on mass production and circulation of fixated news and propaganda materials that would maintain the dependency relationship between them and the nations of Africa,_ Asia and Latin America.
Superior and up- to-date technology is one of the very significant role players in the international information gathering and dissemination. This is by extension one of the factors responsible for the imbalance and inequalities in international information, because this is largely in the firm control of the ind�1strialized nations as well as the transnational corporations . located in Europe and America. The uneven technological development as 49 well as the monopoly by the industrialized nations in the area of scientificand technological information and data obtained by such gadgets such as communication satellite ts very expensive fo r the developing nations like Nigeria. Not only that, such area as computerized sources of specialized
• information and data banks among others, are the exclusive preserve of the powerful international media organizations.
Furthermore, the existence of a vibrant economy enabled the developed n�tions and the transnational companies, involved in the production of the hardware equipment for communication and information, with the wherewithal to enormously invest in research and development projects in· the international communication sector. This phenomenon therefore placed
.them in a vantage · position in the international information gathering and dissemination processes.
On the other hand; the situation in the developing nations such as Nigeria is
quite different fromthe above picture. Most of the developing nations lack the · state. - of- the - art equipment req uired fo r effective and vibrant information and communication industry. This position was clearly stated in a rep01i presented to the conference of Ministers of Information of Non Aligned Countries (COMINAC) held in Abuja, in 1996, by a Committee set up to report on the activities of the Broadcasting Organization of Non - Aligned Countries (BONAC). The Committee presented problems militating against broadcasting in Non Aligned countries, which among others include lack of economic resources necessary to perform a determined plan of action in the area of information and communication as well as diffe re�ces in technology and inadequate professional human resources. These therefore make nations like Nigeria vulnerable to international media onslaught. 50 W. Ofonagoro (1996),also observed that Nigeria's experience of international media distortions can not be too different fr om other Non aligned member countries. He graphically painted the fo llowing pictw·e of Nigeria in the eyes ofthc international media:
Nigeria has been fa lsely advertised to the world as a land in the grip of repressive military autocracy racked by a monumental corruption, civil unrest, impending anarchy, threat of breakdown of civilized living.
He therefore urged cooperation and commitment by the Non-aligned countries. Such a move, according to him, can be a vehicle fo r speaking with one voice, and dialoguing with the great powers that control the prepon�erance of media of communication of the world, with a view to reducing global tension, advancing the cause of peace and amity among all nations, and ensuring fairness, equity and fo r justice to prevail Ill the interactions between the developed and the developing nations.
This position was further elucidated by Diem ( 1996), who equally asserts that the contemporary world of communication is riddled with imbalances, distortions and inequalities. He further maintains that, the non-aligned countries, cannot remain coldly unconyemed to the increasing severe environment with international media agencies perpetually boosting their position in . the filed of information and communication. It is therefore undeniable that one specific manifestation of imbalances and inequalities in the contemporary world communication, is the widening gap between the new methods of communication and information processing on the one hand,
51 and the level of knowledge required to utilize them on the other .In this respect, there is therefore the need fo r the acquisition of advanced
communication te�hnology, since the ne� technology has brought about revolu'tion in the way information is acquired, processed, stored and disseminated .
Similarly, Luke U. Uche in his work The Order of North-South Information
Dichotomy in Post-Cold War Era (1996:11 ), blamed the advanced information technology fo r exacerbating North-South information imbalance that adversely atTects the South, thus:
The control of advanced technology by the West...make it impossible to correct the status quo in the world information flow ... Modern technology, · has become the preserve and monopo.ly of the industrialized nations ...Modern mass communication system has been restructured along the line · of western technology advancements.
Closely related to the above, is the issue of existing communication infrastructure in the developing nations. The sheer size of the developing nations, particularly the African continent and the inadequacy of telecommunication infrastructure, has a very profound role to play in the development of the telecommunication networks, ·particularly. providing services to the remote and rural areas, using small earth stations, as well as fa cilitating news programmes distribution and transmission. The sad aspect o� the non-realization of such dreams is the poor interconnectivity of most of the national networks with limited interstate links in most of these nations. This is 'in addition to the non-existence in most of the Third World of rural telecommunications infrastructure (Maida, 1996).
52 ' '
In his assessment of Telecommunications: Challenge s fo r Nigeria in the 21st Century, the executive vice chairman and chief executive of National Communications Commission (NCC) Ernest Ndukwe declared that:
There are more telephone lines in Manhattan-New York than in the whole of� the sub-Saharan A.fi'ica. It is perhaps no wonder that the African countries continued to wallow in illiteracy, poverty and diseases. We spend more money on arms and ammunitions than on such progressive industries as teleconununications and information technology... An immediate shift of paradigm therefore needs to be made if Africa will be emancipated in the 2151 century (Ndukwe: 2001). In another instance, Ndukwe bemoaned the poor telecommunications' infi·astructure, low telephone penetration and very discouraging Internet accessibility as matters that need to be squarely addressed by African countries including Nigeria. H.e therefore concluded that " in August 2001 there were 514 million people connected to the Internet but sadly only 4 million Africans made the list". He fu rther pointed out that 144 million had access in Asia and Pacific, 25 million in South Arn,erica, 155 million in
Europe an<,l 181 million in North America including USA and Canada (The Guardian, May 22, 2002).
Another dimension to this issue, is the fact that the general direction among the developing nations of South East Asia is at variance with what obtains amongst their Africa counterparts. While transnational corporations established research and production centers in Asia, they seek market fo r the left over and larg�ly outdated communication equipment in Africa thereby
' accentuating the North -South disparity in the information flows (lbrahim, 1996: 80-83).
The fo regoing position was furthersubst anti.ated by MacBride et-al (1980:14) when they concluded that, within the developing countries, communication 53 facilities are often inadequate or rudimentary because of lack of materials and professional resource. lnternal communication networks are also extremely limited, there are also poor sources of news outside and an
ineffective distribution of incoming news. 1 n most of the developing nations, • the national news agencies and broadcast outfits, lack their own fo reign correspondents who largely depend on international media fo r fo reign news. This situation is further exacerbated by the high cost of transmission rates on news sent by telex and cables which restrict transmission by countries whose media must keep to stipulated and mostly inadequate budgetary provision.
The historical, linguistic as well as cultural ties between the colonial powers and their former coJ.onies are also some of the driving fo rces on the issues relating t9 the one-way flow of information. Uche ( 1996: 12), has observed . that the 'colonial and neocolonial factors are just too overwhelming to be glossed over in the issue of imbalances and inequalities in information flows between North and South. This development had its root right from the era of territorial ambitions of the European Powers, which subsequently led to the colonization of the Third World nations.
Colonialism by its very oppress1ve nature made these nations to become suppliers of raw materials for the sustenance of the industrial revolution in Europe as well as the growth and consolidation of the western capitalist . market. Colonialism therefore created the enabling environment fo r the coming of the multinational corporations (for example UAC, BP and John Holt in the case of Nigeria) whose presence facilitated the exploitation of mineral resources, palm production, groundnuts, cotton and petroleum products among qthers. The monopoliza�ion of these markets by these 54 corporations led to the economic rampage of the colonies. Even after the independence of the developing nations, it was deemed necessary to maintain the source of the supply. The consequence of all these today is the perpetual economic dependency and the increasing debt crisis of the Third World on the industrialized states (Okigbo, 1995).
Consequently, information as a large-scale venture came to exist in the Third
World as a kind of western mortgage institution in which the Third World became a mere subscriber. For instance, the Francophone countries in Africa tend to occupy a very significant portion of radio and television broadcasts in France, while Anglophone countries occupy about the same portion on the British radio. Moreover, the cultural and linguistic links between the developing nations, which are still a follow up to the colonial legacies, take the same trend. In this respect, the media in Niger Republic tend to show more interest on news about Senegal (a French speaking country too) than the neighboring country of Nigeria (an English speaking country) This development to a very large extent, inhibits exchange of information between these countries.
The plight of the developing nations in the area of international information was also vividly captured by Sayeed ( 1996) when he declared that:
The press and electronic media of the industrialized countries stili dominate the flow of information. This affects the international news coverage, very often, with somewhat biasness and one sidedness, without fu lly reflecting the interest of the developing countries.
Furthermore, the ministers of information of Non-Aligned nations who met in Ahuja, Nigeria, in September 1996, noted with concern, the fo llowing measures
55 which impede normal development in the field of information and communication among the developing nations:
(a) The imbalance of global economic situation. (b) The use of technological superiority by the West against the non- aligned countries and. The use of unilateral coercive measures, which violate international law and (c) '•' .other charters of the UN against the Non -Aligned countries.
The Ministers further noted the enormous cost and rapid change in information and communication technolo ies which presently outpaced the rate of acquisition and � . utilization of such communication equipment by the developing countries, thus posing immense financial and technical difficulties and increasing the information . and communication gap between developed and developing nations as wel l as their
dependence Qri. external broadcast and information.
It is apparent from these discussions that imbalances and inequalities in the international information flows are to a very large extent accentuated by the internal
. . factors within coun�ries as well as international forces, hence information flows tend towards a North -South direction, which is a situation that can hardly be called
' multidirectional flow of information. Th is phenomenon is indicative of the criticism and discontentment against the structure of the international information system and subsequent calls by the Non Aligned countries since 1970s, fo r the establishment of the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) based an equality, justice and democracy.
56 Cultural Imperialism. is used to describe the Western domination of global mass communication because the dominant western culture imposes its values, beliefs, assumptions, languages etc. upon a dependent Third World culture through the process of global mass communication.
Another issue, which is closely related to the above and equally needs to be highlighted, is the issue of media imperialism. This depicts a situation in which as a result ofthe roles ofthe countries in the North, many of whom were colonial powers at a time, the media systems in many African Countries, Nigeria inclusive, were modelled after these countries. This means that the choice of the communication vehicles like technology, the industrial arrangement fo r the operations of the system, the organizational and financial structure were mostly imported. This, to a very large extent, had and continues to have monumental implications for the continued dependence of the African media on the Euro-American nations to sustain their media system (Ibie, 1988:70).
In his study on Conflict of Values and the African Media, lbie (1988) succinctly observed that:
...the most obvious fo rm of media imperialism is in the media content. This is partly championed through imported programmes, books, periodicals, records and radio programming to some extent. In these areas, the African media is, sometimes as a result of attractive exchange packages programmes offe red freely to some TV and radio stations ...Africa, has been a dumping ground (Ibie, 1988:70- 71).
The above scenario therefore, to a very large extent resulted into the preponderance of foreign and unAfrican programmes in place of indigenous ones. This to some extent depicts the media imperialism phenomenon as it relates to African countries including Nigeria.
58 Scholars seem to have agreed on the power of the media (particularly television) in bringing about cultural dominance and dependence. Ainslie (1966), fo r instance
argues that whoever controls the means of commw1ication (television fo r example) steers not only the channels that transmit messages, but also the power to create fo r
� his audience, an image of the world and more importantly still, an image fo r himself. In the light of this therefore, the developed nations and their powerful instruments of mass communication, exert profound influence on the culture of the people in the developing nations ( Nasir, 1998: 84).
The American filmsthat glorified the American Culture were imported to Nigeria enmass during the oil boom era of the 1970s. With it was the culture of drug addiction, promiscuity, prostitution and crime; These have negative influence on Nigerians and their effects are on the whole bad.
This was corroborated by the Executive Director, National Film and Video Censors Board, Mrs. Roselyn Odeh, while addressing stakeholders in the Nigerian film h industry, on NTA Programme "Entertainment News", on Saturday 81 November, 2003, that the Nigerian youth watch violence in the morning, ritual in the aflernoon and sex films in the night. She observed that these have a profound negative impact on the behavioural up-bringing of our youths.
Jibrin in his "Ideology and the Screen in Nigeria: Some Observations on . ' Manipulations Through Film" (1980), posits that the western film did not only inculcate some negative norms and values on Nigerians but they also inculcate consumerism in order to increase turn-over and profit fo r the transnational companies owned by the western nations. These films introduce new items of
fa shion and therefore inculcate fo reign tastes in Nigerians in order to stimulate
59 import of western manufactured goods thereby killing our local dress manufacturing industry.
A brief study of the political economy of the Nigerian state would to a very large . • extent, enable us to understand the various ramifications of western cultural intrusion in the country. Th� pre-colonial slave trade between Europe and Africa and later trade in industrial raw materials such as cocoa, rubber, cotton, Arabic gum etc; to a very large extent, ensured the smooth transfer of African wea Jth to Europe (Alkali et al, 1988:86). Rodney (1977) argues that this trade helped to develop western Europe in the same proportion as western Europe underdeveloped Africa (Cited in Nasir, 1988:84).
Nigeria had contributed to · the development of European capitalism and to the European comm.ercial domination of the World and thus African subordination to the dictates and. vagaries of capitalism (Williams, 1980:24).
Tt should be pointed out at this juncture that, the benefits Europe derived fro m the pre colonial slave trade led to the 1884-1885 Berlin Conference and the subsequent partitioning of Africa fo r the vested interests of Europe. The various geo-political entities around the Niger, which fe ll under the exclusive British exploitation and rule, came to be known �s Nigeria after the 1914 amalgamation of the Northern and Southern protectorates. Soon, colonial structures, both physjcal and social were established not only to facilitate administrative convenience, but also to prepare ways fo r the smooth loot and exportation of Nigerian wealth to Europe as well as the westernization of the Nigerian people (Nasir, 1988:87).
60 Indeed, this assertion was substantiated by the then Director General of the BBC, Lord Reith, in his speech at the launching ofthe BBC Empire service in London in 1932, when he said that:
If we succeed • in dispelling some of the isolation and loneliness which is the lot of so many of our kindred overseas: If we bring to them and to others some share ofthe amenities and culture... if we can include among the constituent parts of the empire a greater understanding and a great sympathy ...Then our efforts will be amply rewarded (Cited in Nasir, 1988:87).
From the above statement, one can deduct that several years betore the introduction oftelevision into Nigeria, other fo rms of mass communication (Radio) were used by the British not only to c'rea.te psychological sympathy for western culture, but also to ' . entrench it. This phenofl)enon was therefore fu rther perfected in the later decades by. western television culture which flows into the country through the barrage of Direct Broadcasting Satellites (DBS), cable television etc. which the Nigerian information and communication industry have no control over.
Bode Onimode, in his book Imperialism and Nigerian Developm ent ( 1981 :85), rightly elucidates this position when he concluded that the colonialists did not give political independence to Nigeria until after they ensured that they had cultivated and groomed an indigenous class of local bureaucrats, professionals, bourgeoisie, the military, the politician and other personnel whom they handed over the power 'to according to the whims ancl caprices ofthe British imperial government. The imperialistic nature of the relationship between the colonial powers and the colonies at the post independence era is . further accentuated by the international media, who dominates the international information system at the detriment of the Third World nations who cannot resist the imposition of an alien life styles.
61 The above scenario therefore resulted to a very signi licant extent to the change or alteration of the cultures of the Third World nations (Nigeria inclusive). This is apparent in the changes of our norms and values, hair dresses, speeches as well as consumption of western goods and services, the way we eat, the magazines we read,
the music we listen to and to a very large extent, the way we think seems to be along · the western lines.
The Western Media attack even our morality. This is very much apparent in the dress patterns of our fe males who expose their bodies which is a complete negation of African culture. The other issue is in respect of the males braiding their hair,
which is an exclusive tradition of the African woman. The issue of drug addiction adopted by most of the youths also has a profound link with the cultural intrusion perfected by the international media and the globalization of information across the continents.
The foregoing statements are substantiated by Sogolo (1995:104) in his assessment of media imperialism. According to him:
Inventions in Information teclmology have no doubt, helped in promoting media imperialism in Africa. Granted, such developments have led to an increasing process of intercultural exchange of ideas across the globe, the negative effects have been injurious to Africa's development and sense of self-esteem.
Sogolo (1995) went on to point out that CNN is a good example in this respect. He noted that "this powerful American media establish and promote Euro-American cultures all over the world".
Indeed one can establish from these assertions that the international media aided by the new communication technologies especially the DBS, have facilitated the flow 62 of various programmes from one country with different (sometimes strange and harmful) cultural inclination and content to be beamed across the borders to other countries with completely different cultural values and tastes. These programmes are beamed direct into our homes unchecked as they are
• designed to. fn this respect the fo rmer director of United States Information Service once boasted (In Time magazine of September 1 1,1989 ) thus:
There maybe a redline on the maps separating the borders of one country from another, but a satellite doesn't know that, geogr-aphical boundaries no longer regulate the flow of inf(>rmation (Cited in Zaki, 1998:46).
In addition to these, western movies .also exert profound influence on our screen writers. At the 1986 Nige'rian Festival of Television Programmes, seven out of the eleven action drama entries were local version of western gangster films. Not only that, within that year, the then minister of information, Prince Tony Momoh had to person·ally instruct NTA to meiJow down violence in one of its programmes APACS, it produced rrom a three months workshop on script writing in 1985 (Zaki, 1998:49).
Mohammed Murtala m his book New Communication Technologi es and Society (1991 :56), indeed corrobor<;1ted this position when he concluded that, Nigeria and other A rrican countries can access foreign programmes through the satellite dish. This phenomenon has become so rampant that the "In thing" in Nigerian homes today is to possess a dish or a decoder through which fo reign programmes mostly Euro-American , are received uncensored.
63 Closely related to the above is a position postulated by Uche (1996: l 0: II), when he asserts that; the dawn of the information society, as characterized by the Marshal MacLuhan dream fo r a "global village" threatens to eradicate the glory and beauty of cultural plura lism and diversity , characteristic of our world. In the words ofUche (l996):
In its place will he a homogenized western culture of Murdoch's sky TV, Ted Turner's CNN, BBC's Satellite TV, VOA's, World Net etc. Jn this scenario, the developing nations do not have the appropriate technology to withstand, compete with, or neutralise the cultural onslaught the technology ofthe west has evoked in its diffu sions.
There is also the danger of the less active members (in the global information system) to the fo rced alliance into receiving and submitting to a culture that is completely western at the expense of their own national cultures (M urtala, 1991 ). Fears are also expressed by· scholars as regard the negative impact of television programmes beaJTied to Nigeria from abroad particularly from the Euro- American nations. Okoye · (1993: II) discusses how heavy viewing of fo re!gn culture in television and video ti lms could overwhelm Nigerian children, resulting in their alienation fi·om their local surroundings. Okoye warns that such alienation will not augur well fo r. national development because the preservation of a people's culture is essential to their development.
It is equally important to note that despite the growing number of television stations and viewing sets in the country, television has largely remained an urban phenomenon due to high cost and lack of electricity in most of the rural area. The bourgeoisie, the elites and the middle class who largely live in the urban centers are mostly inclined to the new culture, they prefer to read international magazines, listen to fo reign music , watch CNN, BBC (TV), Sky TV etc and to crown it all, basically consume western goods and services . To this end, the developing nations are therefore at the receiving end of the alien cultures, which are alienating their ) . 64 peoples from their own culture, the international media serve as veritable instruments of achieving such tasks.
1 ndeed, the fo regoing discussion clearly shows how the international media, were • able to penetrate into our culture. In line with this, there is also the tendency of overvaluing western culture and subsequently entrenching the colonial mentality into our psyche: This trend has concomitant effect of eroding our indigenous cultures. On the other hand, this scenano should be seen as the consequence of the international information order skewed against the interests of the developing nations. With the possession and firm control of the new communication . technology, capital and expertise among others by the Euro-American nations, this trend is bound to continue. The introduction of the DBS has enabled the
' .
international media to broadcast the signals directly to the receiving. household. In . this respect ·therefore, Nigeria is under the heavy bombardment of fo re ign ·
· communication networks such as CNN, Sky TV, BBC TV etc. One other significant impact of these media organizations is that they also serve as instruments of the western propaganda. Indeed, their primary aim is among others to promote media culture as dictated by the socio-political ideologies of their countries.
From the review of the major researches so far carried out on the impact of the new communication technology on the media, the structure and operations of the international media, Nigeria as portrayed by the international media as well as they causes of the imbalances in the international information flow an� the international media and cultural imperialism, the works provided a fa irly detailed background information necessary fo r an in-depth research work into the subj ect matter under consideration.
65 REFERENCES
Ainslie, Rosalynde (1966) Press in Africa, London: Gollanz.
Alleyne, Mark D. (1995) International Power and International Communication, London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
Alkali, M. Nur (1995)"Corruption: The international Dimension" in Isa, L. J. (ed) Not Our Character, Kaduna: Kaduna State Government.
Abu, Sayeed (.1996)"Statement" at Conference ofMinisters of Information ofNon Aligned Countries, held in Abuja, 3 rd -6th Sept.
Adeleke, Tunde (1998) "The Political Economy ofMass Communication in Nigeria" in Nur Alkali et al (ed) Mass Communication in Africa:A Book ofReadin gs :, Enugu: Delta Publications. · .
Boyd - Barret, Oliver (1977) ".Media Imperialism: Towards an international framework fo r the analysis of media Systems" in Curran et al (eds.) Mass Communication and Society,Londo n: Open University Press. ..
Cominac (v) (1996) "Final Declaration" of the Fifth Conference of Minister of Information of Non Aligned Countries, 3rd_6th Sept.
Golding, Peter ( 1974) Mass Media, Essex: Longman Group Ltd.
· Guback, Thomas et al ( 1992) Transnational Communication and Cultural Industries, reports and pape rs on mass Communication, Paris: UNESCO.
Ibie, N. 0. ( l988)·"Conflictof Values and 'the African Media", in Alkali M. Nur, The mass communication in Africa: A Book ofReadings, Enugu : Delta Publications.
Ibrahim, Jibrin (1980) "Ideology and the Screen in Nigeria; some observation on manipulation through fi lm" Unpublished paper presented at the seventh Annual Conference of the 66 Nigerian Political Science Student Associailon held in Port Harcourt from March 25th to 28th 1980.
Ikoku, Sam (1995) Seminar Discussion on Mallam Adamu Ciroma's Paper, "Western Media and the Nigerian Image" in lsa, L. J. (ed) Not In Our Character, Kaduna: Kaduna State Government.
Agber, Kwaghkondo ( 1992) "Direct Broadcasting Satellites: Threats to the Emergence of a National Film Industry" In Hygnius Ekwuazi and Yakubu Nasidi ( ed) Operative Principles of the. Film Industry: Towards a Fiim Policy f� r Nigeria, Jos: National Film Corporation.
Maida, Wada A. (1996) "New Technology and the Transformation of the Communication Process: Challenges fo r the Nigerian Media in The 21st Century" In The Media and the Twenty First Century. Ahuja: Nigeria Union of Journalists.
MacBride, Sean et-al (Eds.) (1980) Many Voices, One World, (C ommunication and Society: Today and Tomorrow), Paris: UNESCO.
Mohammed, Murtala ( 1991) New Communication Technologies and Society, Kaduna: Nation House Press.
Mustapha, N. M. ( 1988) "Television and Cultural Domination in Nigeria" ln Nur Alkali Mohamm·ed, The Mass Communication in Africa: A Book of Readings, Enugu: Delta Publications. Ofonagoro, Walter (1995) "Key Note Address" in lsa L.J. ( ed) Not in our Character, Kaduna: Kaduna State Government.
Okunna, Chinyere S. ( 1999) Introduction to Mass Communication (2nd, Ed), Enugu: Second Generation Books.
Okigbo, Charles (1995) "National Images in The Age of the Information Super Highway: African Perspectives" AfTica Media Review Vol. 9, No2
67 Okin, 0. ( 1987) 200 Days to Eternity: The Administration ofMurtala Ramat Mohammed, Yugoslavia: Lj ublanja Printers.
Onimade, Bode (1979) "Imperialism and Nigerian Development" in Nnoli, 0. (ed) Path to Nigerian Development, Dakar: Codesria. ' Offiong,Daniel A.( 1980) Imperialism and Dependency: Obstacles to African Development, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers,
Okoli, F. C. ( 1988) "Cultural Imperialism and Deco Ionisation: The Challenges ofthe media ln Africa." In Alkali, Mohamined Nur et al (ed.), The Mass Communication in Africa: A Book of Readings , Enugu: Delta Puglications.
Rodney, Walter ( 1972) How Europe Underdevloped Africa, London: Bogie-Overture Publication.
Sogolo, Godwin (1995) "The lmperatiyes of the New .Information Order" in.Isa, L. J. (ed), Not In Our Character, Kaduna: Kaduna State Government.
Uche, Luke 0; (Eds.) (1996) North - South Information Culture; Trends Tn Global Communications and Research Paradigms, Logos: Longman Nigeria Pic.
' Zaki, Bello M. (1998) Western Media and Nigerian Development, · Kano: Hadiza Giwa Press.
68 CHAPTER THREE
3. I THE NIGERIAN INFORMATION SYSTEM
This chapter sets out to · discuss the development of various policies and institutional frameworks that have shaped the development of the Nigeria information system. This has become necessary because it is through the understanding of such policies and institutions of Nigerian information structures that we can now examine the role of Nigeria in the international information system.
In any contemporary society, adequate and factual information dissemination is very vital. ln this respect, government policies, programmes and activities
must th.erefore be clearly projected to the citizenry. In doing so, info rmation management must ensure that government and its people arc in tandem with the free flow of information in a mutually reinforcing manner. Furthermore, information and communi'cation technologies are the bedrock of national surv.ival and development in a rapidly changing international environment. They provide the wherewithal to meet attendant challenges and other vital socio-economic and political issues (Federal Ministry of Information and National Orientation, (2002: 183).
· lt is in the light of the foregoing, that the Federal Government establishes various institutions and enunciate hosts of policy measures fo r effective and
result-oriented in�ormation management b�th within the country and abroad.
69 3.2 The Role of the Federal Ministry of Information and National
Orientation in the T nformation System. The Federal Ministry of Information and National Orientation is an arm of the fe deral republic of Nigeria charged with the statutory responsibilities of
• fo rmulating and implementing government information policies through its various departments as well as other communication parastatals which it directly supervises. ,
' The ministry currently has eight departments; these are, finance and supplies, planning research and statistics, external publicity, production and fi lm department, personnel management, domestic publicity, national archives and fe deral government press. The ministry also has six units namely: public relations unit, internal audit, legal unit, national press center, information · technology unit and populations information and communication bureau. All of these report through their various heads to the permanent secretary who . then reports to the Honorable Minister of Infonnation and National Orientation.
Further to these, the ministry supervtses the activities of the fo llowing parastatals, namely: Nigeria Television authority (NTA), Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN), Voice of Nigeria (VON), National Broadcasting Commission (NBC), Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON), National Film and Video Censors Board (NFVCB), New Nigeria Newspaper (NNN), Daily Times Nigeria (DTN) , Nigeria Film Corporation (NFC), News Agency ofNigeria (NAN) and National Orientation Agency (NOA).
The corporate goals and objectives of the ministry are derived from policy directives and guidelines on public information management as may be defined or prescribed by the President and Commander-in-chief of the Armed
70 Forces of the Federal ��public of Nigeria from time to time. However, the fo llowing'are the specific functions of the ministry:
a). To serve as the fed�ral public information outfit responsible for professional policy making, planning, gathering, processing, packaging and dissemination � of essential and vital information which will enhance and facilitate domestic governance ofNigeria as a fe deral republic.
b). To provide professional information services which will protect the image and reputation of the fe deral government and her people as a responsible society.
c). To develop, design, institutionalize appropriate and generally acceptable information and communication policies, which will promote information management and control in a democratic society .
. d). To initiate action programmes, policies, rules and regulations which will
ensure the �xistence and maintenance of civilized and orderly information and communication system in Nigeria consistent with acceptable cultural and conventional norms and ethics of the Nigerian people and world community. _ e). To provide broad and specific�guidelines fo r developmeryt, management and operation of print and electronic media fo r education, public enlightenment, entertainment and socio-economic and political development and orientation. In this respect the ministry maintains appropriate relationship with the press and the government.
f). To conduct research, surveys and studies which will enhance better understanding of the relevance, impact and approach to public information and their implications fo r public policies and programmes. ' g). To provide general printing and publishing services to all ministries fo r effective public administration and to and the international organizations fo r their use.
71 h). To represent Nigeria at international fora or conferences on information
With regard to the Nigeria's external image, the external publicity department is responsible fo r the positive projection of the policies, programmes and activities of the governmentof the fe deral republic of Nigeria to the outside world. Its people, economic resources and investment opportunities that abound in the country.
The main functionsof the department include: a). Publicizing government programmes and activities to the outside world. b). Packaging information .specially tailored fo r fo reign consumption. c). Maintaining close liaison with correspondents of fo reign media establishments as well as information and cultural desks fo r fo reign embassies and high commissions in Nigeria. d). Accreditation of fo reign journalists visiting Nigeria. e). Monitoring reports in fo reign print and electronic media about Nigeria. f). Feeding our information service centers abroad with information and publicity materials fo r their daily functions. g). The department is also responsible fo r the implementation of the protocol agreement on information and information exchanges with other countries.
Having realised the potency of information technQlogy in the global information flow, the Federal Ministry of Information and National orientation has embarked on an in fo rmation technology project to meet the 21st century challenges of information gathering, packaging, processing and dissemination. To �his. end, the ministry establis.hes information technology unit, which was officially launched in March 12,2002 along with the official federal government website which can be accessed at www.nigeria.gov.ng (Federal Ministry of Information and National OrientRtion 2002: 185).
· 72 The Info rmation Technology Unit is saddled with the fo llowing responsibilities:
a. Provision and management of internet facilities in the ministry b. Procurement of hardware and software . c. Maintenance of information technology fa cilities in the ministry d. Management and maintenance ofthe ministry's website e. Information technology training in the ministry f. Liaising with relevant government organizations · and NGO's on information technology
In addition to these, the information technology unit executes the fo llowing:- a) It establishes 300-node structured network which enables all staff to have access to the internet. b) It connects the Local Area Network (LAN) to the internet by VSAT (Very
. small Aperture Terminal) thereby given the Broadband internet Access to the MiJiistry'sheadquar ters. c) It operate a cyber cafe comprising 10 points on a Local Area Network in the national Press Centre fo r the members of the public. A least 60 users visit the center everyday. d) It �rains all levels of staff in the ministry, 37 head of information centers . nationwide and over 200 senior staff including information officers and secretaries.
Another vital information organ is the NTA. It was created on April I st, 1977 and currently has 33 stations operating in the country. However, with the expansion currently going on nationwide, the number is expected to rise up to about a I 00 digital NTA stations. Furthermore, the present democratic dispensation has boosted the equipment acquisition of the NTA with the provision of 8 Outside Broadcasting Vans (OB Van) as well as smaller satellite equipment in order to ensure transmission of programmes live from any location ih the country. Along side these developments
73 are myriads of problems which yearn for solutions. These include; insufficient state of- the -art equipment that would ensure effective coverage of the nation by the NTA. The old obsolete equipment such as the bulky analogue cameras and other news gathering and transmission equipment which are cumbersome and outdated are
• still in ·use by the NTA. The areas of fu nding and inexperienced manpower also hamper effective discharge of the statutory responsibilities of the NTA. However,
' with the zeal apd vigor oftlie ·present NTA management and the increased budgetary allocation such problems could be overcomed (Osawe ,2002).
FRCN is another governmel)t media organ charged with the responsibility of information dissemination. It was established on April 1st , 1978. In an attempt to widen the scope of its activities, the FRCN introduced the FM Broadcast concept. With the aim of establishing 32 FM st�tions in the country. The pacesetter in this respect is FRCN Akure FM station which was commissioned in April, 2002. It has two digital studios one fo r production and the other fo r airing programmes. This is
the concept of the new FM stations to be found in all the 36 states of the fe deration and Abuja afterthe completion of the expansion exercise.
The FRCN is saddled with a plethora of problems handicapping its operations. Though partially commercialized, the FRCN still largely depends on government subvention, which does not meet its requirements. In addition to this, it is still linked to NTTEL fo r transmission of its news and programmes. Any break in NITEL repeater stations or noise introduced into the systems atfect its transmissions. To counter these, FR_CN is in the process of introducing wide area network systems using smaller satellite systems. These would enable it to uplink their system fr om any location or station to headquarters and downlink it to transmitters fo r rebroadcasting, thus, becoming independent ofNitel (Abdullahi, 2002).
74 The year 1962 marked a watershed in the history of broadcasting in Nigeria. This was the year when the Voice of Nigeria (VON) was established to promote the image of Nigeria abroad and harmonize its programmes to the foreign policy
objectives of the fe deral government. Tt started broadcasting on I st January, 1962 in • English and French for two hours daily to West and Central Africa. The period was increased to 6 hours in 1963 while Arabic programmes were introduced in the same year (Handbook on Information and Culture, 1994).
Nigeria's growing role in Africa and indeed the World at large, made it"mandatory to embark on a wider coverage ofthe World. Thus, in 1980, 5 additional transmitters of 500 kilowatts each were acquired and installed to boost production. As a result of
these, s�parate services to North Afri?a and overseas, West A fT ica, Central and Southern Africa Services were set up and commenced broadcasting simultaneously to their target audiences in English, French, Hausa, Arabic , German and Ki Swahili. The programmes directorate ensures that the news and programmes produced by the corporation truly reflects Nigeria's position in Africa, within the black race and comity of nations (Ibid, 1994: 121-125).
In order to spread its activities, VON has embarked on opening zonal offices in the six political zones in the country. The pacesetter in this respect was the Gombe zonal office covering the northeastern states while the one in Calabar will soon be opened to cover the south - south geo political zones. This is to be fo llowed by other zonal offices. The aim of this is to collect stories, produce programmes and file them to the news rooms fo r onward broadcast to audiences. At the international level, VON has recently established an office in Pretoria, South Africa, to cover the southern African, sub-regions. Plans are also under way to open such offices in other African sub region and other major capitals of the world such as London, Washington, Paris,
75 New York etc. This is in addition to the services of stringers who would occasionally send in reports to VON (Jijiwa, 2002).
Furthermore, VON has good working relationship with many international broadcast media such as British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Voice of American (VOA),
• Radio Deutsch Welle, Radio France International (RFf), Radio Sudan etc. The
relationship with these �rganizations is in areas of collaboration in programme exchange, manpower development and aids in new information ��chnology.
In the last three years, VON using the advantages of new information technology and democratic rule in Nigeria has revolutionized and updated its equipment. It phased out the only two epileptic analogue stations it has been using fo r decades and replaced them with fo ur new digital computerized studios. Its old transmitter also has been replaced with three fu1ly functional ones. In addition to these, it has computerized all its activities using fo urty computers in place of the outdated fo ur it has been using �or quite sometime (Jijiwa, Ibid)
Despite all these developments, VON is fa ced with the problem of funding. By law, VON cannot air commercials. This is in line with global broadcasting conventions, which prevents such radio stations from engaging in commercial broadcast. VON is therefore 100% reliant on government subvention which is highly limited. The organization therefore has to make use of the meager resources made available to it by the government (Aiimi, 2002).
To complement government effort in funding its activities, VON established a
limited liability company VON Communications which is involved in provision of consultancy services to government and private sector organizations in areas like delivery of studio fa cilities. lt also established VON training center, which is a ' computerized training outfit holding courses fo r various organizatio'ns. In addition to this, it has also gone into real estate development in partnership with private estate developers. For instance, it intends to develop and commercialize some residential
76 areas in Ikoyi, Lagos. Moreover, VON plans to establish a CD recording center in
lkoyi, I ,agos, fo r recording, promoting and marketing Nigerian artistes (Aiimi Ibid).
On realization of the need to buttress Nigeria's growing role at he international level, there arose the need to establish a national news agency. Thus the News Agency of • Nigeria (NAN) was set up by a Decree on May 10,1976. However, long before this , time, there were calls fo r the establishment of such an agency. For instance, in 1970, the then Federal Commissioner of Information and Labour, Chief Anthony Enahoro submitted a memo to the Federal Executive Council, proposing the establishment of a national news agency because Foreign news agencies had , in the words of Chief Enahoro:
By and large either distorted news concerning the Federal. Military Government or completely ignored important items and starve� it of global dissemination. It has, in consequence, grown increasingly clear that only national new� agency can serve the purpose of ensuring the widest circulation of news and fe atures fo r buttressing ofNigeria's growing role in regional, continental and International Affairs(Handbook on Information and Culture, (Ibid :95).
From the above, it can safely be established that NAN was established out of the desire to change the pattern ofdependence on fo reign media information which is largely characterized by imbalances and inequality. , > •
The agency, started operation on October 2, 1978 m Lagos, with the fo llowing objectives as provided by section 2 sub-section (1) of the Decree establishing it:- (a) To seek, obtain and· otherwise receive through subscription, payment, exchange or other means, international, regional, local and other news materials as may be agreed; (b) To distribute such news, news materials and news fe atures to subscribers against payment either in th� form of fees or news exchange or on such other terms as may be agreed;
77 (c) To present, compl�te, objective materials or fe atures on any matter of Public or national interest within and outside the Federation and;_ (d) To report truthfully and fa irly, without prejudice to public and national interest, the view of all sections ofthe population of Federation.
According to its editorial policy, NAN is to uphold the integrity of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and to promote harmonious relationships among the different groups in Nigeria. In addition, its policy stated that:
(a) News and comments emanating from the Agency must be truthful, honest and fa ir, but must not jeopardize peace and har�ony in the country . . . (b) The Agency must bring enlightened opinion to bear in discussing national and international issues. It must positively influence public opinion and contribute to the evolution and formulation· of correct national policies . . (c) The Agency is enjoined to promote understanding among the peoples of
ECOWAS sub-region , the OAU and the World in general . 1t is also enjoined to respect the integrity of member countries of the ECOWAS and OAU. (d) In its role as the national purveyor of news and opinion, and of espousing the Public good, the News Agency of Nigeria must not act as an Institutional opponent to any government or interests, but where it is in the public interest
to report criticism of public policy , it must do so in a restrained and objective manner. (e) ln matters that affect the sovereignty or unity of Nigeria, neutrality is not expected of the Agency. It must come out firmly on the side of Nigeria, without prejudice to its adherence to the truth which must at aiJ times be its guiding light and governing principle (NAN Style Book, 1992:vii-viii).
NAN started operation with a pilot news service consisting of only news from Nigeria distributed twice daily by dispatch riders to newspapers, radio and
78 television stations and few government organizations and individuals in Lagos. Since the Agency's telecommunication fa cilities had not yet been installed, it was ' not possible to serve directly, media organizations outside Lagos. At the turn of 1978, a General News Service (GNS) replaced the Pilot Service. The agency
• introduced other services, namely: fe atures, Economic News (NANECON), Sports (NANSPORT), Photo (NAN Photo) as well as specialized and diplomatic news.
The agency charges fe es ·fo r all its services and currently transmits an average of 120 stories daily with generai news service having a lion share of 70% to its clients. Furthermore, over· 30% of its stories are used by Nigerian newspapers while more than 70% of the newscasts of most radio and television stations in the country emanates from the Agency (Abui, 2002).
The Agency currently has offices in all the 36 state capitals with the exception of . Bayelsa where it has only a correspondent operating without an office .It also maintains district offices in major towns of the states, thus ensuring a wide spread across the nation.
On the fo reign scene, NAN posts senior editorial officers as fo reign correspondents to London, New York and Harare. By 1983, the number was increased to ten with offices in Abidjan, Belgrade; Cairo, Harare, Moscow, Washington, Paris and South A fT ica. However, by 1985, some of these offices were closed down due to ftnancia I difficulties fa cing the Agency. The Agency currently maintains fo ur offices abroad namely, Washington, Newyork, London and Abidjan. Plans are however, in the pipeline to open three more offices in Moscow, New Delhi and Cairo before the end of this year (Abui, 2002).
At its inception, the agency used the tele-type radio system fo r the reception and , dissemination of news items. Tt has however, since computerized ,all its operations, and has since 1998, commenced satellite distribution of its news items through Data
79 Transmission Service (DTS), where it transmits directly to its various subscribers through its website-www. NAN. Com. Thus eliminating cumbersomeness and waste of time.
In addition to these, the agency has acquired new editing machines to enhance its • news processing, known as the News Management System (NMS). Manuf-actured by UK-based Transtel communications, the equipment enables the user to view, edit and print stories. It also has a photo processing fac ility which allows fo r the receipt, editing and sending of photos through e-mail and website options. According to the · managing director of NAN, Mal lam Wada Maida, this is meant to itnprove the news processing ability of the agency and to keep in tune with developments in information technology (The News merchant, 200 1 :1) .
Further to these, !':JAN hasrece ntly acquired two new mobile news rooms to improve . news gathering and pracessing especially in difficult terrain. Each of the mobile
news rooms is ·.equipped with a laptop computer and a satellite phone to enable reporters filein on - the - spot reports fr om any location in the country.
The agency has also achieved a considerable meas.ure of progress in linking its offices with the e-mail and website fa cility. Added to these, in order to ameliorate the problem of regular power supply, the agency acquired and installed two, 500 and '26 KV A generating plants at its new headquarters in Abuja. It also provided solar power equipment which provide at least 6 hours electricity, daily, at its state offices. . ' This has gr�atly reduced hardships usually enc�untered by states offices, while transmitting stories to headquarters (Egwuagu , 2002). As at April 2002, the agency granted the sum ofN 1.5 million to its Lagos, Abuja and Kaduna reporters , to purchase their personal Global Satellite Mobile (GSM) telephones to ease communication problems usually encountered by reporters at their duty posts. According to the Editor -in- chief NAN, Mr. Abui, This has
80 greatly eased communication hurdles faced by the reporters. The management also intends to extend such measures to other reporters as soon as the GSM Services are �vailable in their respective areas (The News Merchant,Ibid:6).
The News Agency ofNigeria has established news exchange agreements with other • national and international 'news agencies such as; Reuters, AF-P, AP, Xhin hua, OPEC News Agency (OPECNA), PANA, etc. The relationships has so fa r been cordial and beneficial to both parties, as the news exchange agreements flourishover the years. In addition to these, other news agencies !ike Middle East News Agency (MENA), Indian News Agency (INA), Ghana News Agency (GNA), accepted one or two NAN editors/reporters on working visit to enable them have a fe el of news agency operation at firsthand. (Abui, 2002). However, the major problems confronting the agency have been, low budgetary allocations from the goveniment, insufficientmanpower, erratic power supply which also affects its· communication either with its subscribers or its offices across the nation (Egwuagu, 2002).
A critical examination of the fo regoing discussions clearly shows that all the federal government-owned media institutions are bedevilled with a host of problems ranging from inadequate fu nding and poor infrastructural facilities among others. These therefore do not augur well for Nigeria's strive to perform consistently and effectively in the informational information system.
3.3 The Establishment of National Broadcasting Commission and The
Emergence of Private Broadcasting in Nigeria.
Broadcasting, due to its persuasive power among others, 1s a very potent .media of mass communication as it combines audio, vision and motion and is capable of reaching large number of audience simultaneously. It is in recognition of the potency of this mass n- ·tia, especially in the early stages of 81 its development, the governments became more concerned with their operations than tbe other media of mass communication. Therefore, rad io and television services in most developing countries, Nigeria inclusive, come under government monopoly.
The fe deral government monopoly and control over the broadcasting industry in Nigeria came to an end in 1979 when that year's constitution allowed states to establish and operate their own radio and TV Stations. This scenario continued until 1992, when the federal government deregulated the industry
. and therefore allowed private ownership of broadcast media and subsequently establishes National Broadcasting Commission (N BC). This ended over 50 years of government. sole ownership of broadcast media in Nigeria (NBC
Code Book, 1996:4) .
Decree 22 of 1992, which established the NBC confers on it the responsibilities of regulating and controlling the entire broadcasting Industry, and to process applications fo r radio and television licenses. Essentially, the government in line with its deregulation policy decided to give up its mono.poly in the broadcast media and thus encourage investment and competition in the industry.
Okunna ( 1999:76-77) argues that one of the major reasons fo r government, control of broadcasting is based on the fact that the airw�ves are a scarce public resource. It is therefore argued that such resource should be in the firm control of the government and its allocation should be in the way best suitable
to the Public Interest.
It should however be noted that government control of the broadcasting Industry has now extended beyond government owned media to include privately owned media. For instanc even in the developed nations, 82 broadcasting is subject to government regulation, this however varies from one country to another. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC), in USA, fo r instance, was established in 1 934 to regulate radio, television and telecommunications. This communication regulation outfit is all- powerful as • fa r as broadcasting is concerned in the USA. And because broadcasting is equally powerful in the American Society, the FCC has a tremendous
influence on the life of most American Citizens. This position has been further elucidated by Bitner (19809:326) as fo llows:
Of all government agencies, the FCC is second to none-in its direct and propound effect on the lives of virtually every one. The FCC is whether directly or indirectly, the governmental body responsible fo r regulating relatively all of the messages millions of people see and hear everyday through the broadcast media ...It can affect the content of the pritne-time TV, give networks second thoughts about children's TV Programming ... and affect daily operations of every local broadcasting operation in the country (cited in Okunna, Ibid:78).
From the above, it can be 'established that for a government to have an effective regulatory role in the broadcasting industry, it needs to establish an effective institution responsible fo r such roles. Thus, after series of lobbying, pressures and agitation from veteran journalists, broadcasters as well as from elites across the country, the Babangida administration established the NBC under Decree No. 38 which took effect from 241h August, l992 (Gusau, 1994:37).
The enabling decree saddles the Commission with the fo llowing responsibilities.
(a) Advising the Federal Government generally on the implementation of the National Mass Communkation P()licy with particular reference to broadcasting.
83 (b) Receiving, processmg and consideration of applications fo r the ownership of radio and television stations including cable services, direct satellite broadcast and any other medium of broadcasting.
(c ) Recommending applications through the Minister to the President, Commander - in -Chief of the A1med Forces fo r the grant of radio and television licenses. (d) Regulating and controlling the broadcast industry; (e) Undertaking research and development in the broadcast industry;
(t) Receiving, considering and investigating complaints from individuals; and bodies corporate or incorporate regarding the contents of a broadcast and the conduct of a broadcasting station; (g) Upholding the principles.of equity and fa irness in broadcasting; · (h) Establishing and disseminating a broadcasting code and setting standards with regards to the contents and quality of materials fo r broadcast; . . . (i) Promoting Nigeria's indigenous ultures, moral and community life . � through broadcasting;
U) Promoting authenticated radio and television audience measurements and penetration;
(k) Initiating and harmonizing government policies on transborder direct · transmission and reception in Nigeria;
(I) Regulating ethical standards and technical excellence m Public, private and comm�rcial broadcast stations· in Nigeria; (m) ' Monitoring broadcasting for harmful emission, interference and illegal broadcasting; (n) Determining and applying sanctions including revocation of licenses of defaulting stations which do not operate in accordance with the broadcast code and in the public interest;
84 ( o) Approving the transmitter power, the location of stations, areas of coverage as well as regulate types of broadcast equipment to be used and (p) Carrying out such other activities as are necessary or expedient fo r the full discharge of all or any of the functions conferred on it under or pursuant , to this decree. Prominent among the beneficiaries of private television licences are: Minaj System Ltd., Channels Incorporated, Murhi fnternational, Degue Broadcasting Network (DBN), Triple Heritage Communications Ltd. (for radio and television), Galaxy Pictures Ltd. among others.
By the end of 1994, some of the fo urteen private television stations started test transmission, these include Desmims Independent Television (DITV) Channel 38, Kaduna, Minaj TV Channel 38, Obosi near Onitsha, Galaxy Pictures TV Channel
53, Ibadan and ,Ciapperboard TV Channel 45, Lagos. ·
Prominent among licenses granted to cable /satellite retransmission operators are: ABG Communications, DAAR Communications, MG Communications, Satellite Network System among others. Further to these, in 1994 license was granted to the DAAR Communication Ltd, Lagos fo r establishing a private radio station which - ' . later came to be known as "Ray Power 100.5 FM" which started transmission in 1995.
It is worthy to note that Minaj Broadcast International (MBI) and the DAAR communications owners of Raypower radio and the African Independent Te levision (AIT), played very significant roles as far as international broadcasting by private media outfit is concerned in Nigeria. The two television stations were licensed to
operate gl.obal broadcast services _via satellite.
On the 16th of August 1994, the NBC secured presidential approval licensing DAAR communications limited, Lagos, to operate the nation's first private radip
85 st station, Raypower 100.5 FM, which commenced a 24 hour broadcast on I · September 1994 (Dokpesi,' 1997:64). Moreover, AIT broadcasts to Europe and A ffi ca and has established cordial relationshtps w1th such international media as BBC (Radio and Television) as well as VOA TV (Abiodun, 2002).
On the other hand, MBI started international broadcasting in 1997 to European countries such as England and to Canada, to African countries such as South Africa and Kenya and the American cities such as Washington and Texas. It also established good relationships in areas of programmes exchange with such international media organizations like VOA and the Digital Satellite Television (DSTV) Multichoice of south Africa.
It should however, be noted that both M.Bl and AIT maintain good n!lationships with ' NBC, which moderates their transmissions and ensures standardization of programmes t�rough the supervision of their log books in accordance with the provision of paragraph 6 of the third schedule of Decree 38 (NBC Code Book, 1996: 1 0).
It is also worthy to note that both AlT and MBI are saddled with problems of cost of . operation!)par ticularly in Ahuja especially as it relates to the issue of acquiring land for building permanent sit�s fo r their transmission stations in the city. Both of them are currently operating in temporary locations owned by ABO Communications at Mpape hill.
A giant stride was achieved on Monday llth February,2002, when the Minister of lnfortnation , Professor Jerry Gana announced the Federal Government's granting of licenses fo r sixteen new FM Stations, twelve of which are commercial while fo ur are specialized. Among the commercial are, Radio Gotel in Yola, Joy FM in Makurdi, Nagarta Radio in Kaduna, Unity Radio in Ahuja, Choffa n Radio Ltd in Oraifite among others. Of the specialized ones are Atlantic FM mainly fo r
86 transmission of French, Brial1a FM fo r sports, UNILAG FM is fo r academic purposes and Spectrum FM which will broadcast news only fo r 24 hours. It should however, be noted that this is the first time that the NBC bas ensured that there is national spread in granting the licenses. Records before then show that over 80% of
• broadcast stations that are in operation have been located in Lagos and its environs. A caref-ul check on the list attests to this assertion. AIT, DBN TV, Channels TV, Murhi International TV, MTTV, Super Screen among others, are all based in Lagos. For radio stations, there- is Ray power 1 and 2, Rhythm, Cool FM, Star FM and Choice FM among others also based in Lagos. From this, it can be established that Nigerians outside Lagos have before now, not really enjoyed the deregulation of the broadcast industry. Accord!ng to the DG, NBC, Mallam Danladi Bako, this measure has to be adopted because "other parts of the coun�ry should have an alternative voice apart from that of government"( 2002:47).
One clear picture that emerges from the fo rgoing is that the establishment of the - NBC to a ¥ery large extent, facilitated the emergence of private broadcasting institutions in the country. This has resulted in the expansion of the sources of , information available to the citizenry which was hitherto predominantly controlled by the ·government.
87 REFERENCES
Bittner, John (1989) Mass Communication: An Introduction (5 1h Ed), New Jersey: Printice Hall. DokPesi, Raymond A. ( 1997) "The Economics ofthe Deregulation · and Commercialization of Broadcasting" In Deregulation of Broadcasting in Africa, Lagos: National Broadcasting Commission. Gusau, Nababa Sanda (1994) The Mass Media in Nigeria, Kaduna: Multimedia Publishing Co. Ibrahim, Mohammed ( 1996) "Emerging Trends In Media Development in Developing Countries: A Nigerian Perspective" In The Media and the Twenty First Century, Abuja: Nigeria Union of Journalists. Interview with Eng. Nosa Osawe, Director Engineering (Satellite Interview with Shehu Abui, Editor-in-Chief,New Agency ofNigeria, Interview with V. N. Egwuagu, Deputy Managing Director, Technical Services, News Agency ofNigeria,Wednesday,April 3rd , 2003 Interview with Abdullahi Ibrahim, J)irector Technical Services, FRCN, Wednesday April 3:d 2002. Interview with Abubakar Jijiwa, Director Finance and Administration, VON, Monday April 29, 2002. Interview with Taiwo Allimi DG, VON, "VON: Africa's Emerging ' Voice" In NBC News, Vol. 3 No. 4, P.16 Interview with Sunday Oluwale., Manager, M. B. 1., Abuja� Tuesday April 23, 2002. Interview with Abiodun Lekan, Manager A. I. T., Abuja, Tuesday, May 7, 2002 . . News Age ncy ofNige ria style Book (2nd Ed), 1992), Lagos: News Agency ofNigeria. Nigeria Hand Book on Information and Culture, (1994), Lagos: Sahel Publishing and Printing Co. Ltd. Nzekwu, Onuora (Ed) (1988) News Agency ofNigeria, Lagos: NAN. Okunna, Chinyere S. (1999) Introduction to Mass Communication n (2 d Ed), Enugu: Second Generation Books. 110 NBC (,1966) The National Broadcasting Code, (2 Ed) Lagos: NBC The National Mass Communication Policy, (1987), Lagos: Federal Ministry of Infonnation and Culture. Thisday, Vol. 8 No. 2491, February 16, 2002. P. 47 The News Merchant, VoL, 2 No. 3, November 2001, Abuja, NAN.
88 CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 NIGERIA IN THE INTERNATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM
The chapter critically analyses the various strands on Nigeria's roles in the international information system, with a view to identifying policy gaps and implementation lapses in the international flow of information as it affects Nigeria. Against this background, the chapter is broken down into the following sub-headings: -
4.2 The National Mass Communication Policy as it affects Nigeria in the
International Information System
The formulation of a comprehensive media policy aimed at sustaining a healthy media industry is one of the fundamental requirements necessary in a contemporary society. It is in recognition of this fa ct and in an attempt to streamline the activities of the media industry in Nigeria that the guiding principles in this industry, known as the National Mass Communication Policy, was established in 1987. In the words ofOfonagoro (1996:vii):
This was not surprising since a healthy media is essentially a direct function of the socio-economic and political dispensation prevalent at any point in time, in a society. In fa ct, the lack of a coherent guideline in the media industry became so manifest in various spheres of our national life that a decisive step had to be taken to redress the situation.
It was in an attempt to give focus to the Nigerian media industry taking into cognizance the scenario painted above among others; that a National Mass Communication Seminar was packaged in 1978, under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of Information and Culture, in collaboration with a group
89 of academics, researchers and some mass communication experts in the country. Sequel to this, series of seminars were held at Administrative Staff
College of Nigeria (ASCON), Badagary, Lagos, In February, 1987. The outcome of these efforts was the production of a National Mass Communication Policy document which passed through several other processes of analysis and synchronization, ending with its approval by the defunct Armed rorces Ruling Council (AFRC) on April 10,1990 (National Mass Communication Policy, 1990).
The Policy had to a very large extent led to both structural as well as the institutional transformation in the nation's information and communication industry. For instance, regulatory bodies such as National Communication·
Commission (NCC), National . Broadcasting Commission (NBC), Nigeria Press Council •(NPC) etc. were established. The National Mass
Communication Policy Is therefore a well -tailored and comprehensive documetit that aims at ensuring a healthy development in the nation's media industry. It should, .however be pointed out that this study would only be restricted in highlighting and analysing the following as enunciated in the policy:-
(a) The philosophy and objectives ofthe Policy. (b) Nigeria's external communication structures.
This is so because it is from a careful study of these areas, among others, that we will be able to identifY the policy gaps and the implementation lapses in the Nigeria information system vis-a-vis its roles in the international information system which would fo rm the basis of our analysis in this chapter.
90 4.2.1 The Philosophy and Objectives of the National Communication Policy.
Chapter II of the national communication policy has stipulations that deals • with the philosophy and objectives ofthe policy. The philosophy or ideology of a country is generally a coherent set of fundamental principles enunciated to underpin a people's way of life and aspirations. Those principles are, by and large, structured statements of goals, objectives, hopes and aspirations. The purpose of philosophy or ideology is not only to ensure uniform contro l over most processes of social interactions among citizens of a state but also to ' orient th oughts and actions in a unidimensional path towards stated national goals.
. The "philosophy" of a national communication policy must therefore be
fo unded . on a national ideology or philosophy where it exists. Strong cases were made at the ASCON seminar by scholars and mass communicators of various schools of thought that a national ideology should precede the fo rmulation of a national communication policy. There were ideological . advocates of the right and left and what a speaker termed "middleroadism". The consensus of opinion, however, was that, although Nigeria did not have an ideological blueprint couched in one of the capitalism/socialism/ welfarism· categories, it does have structured statements of goals, objeCtives, hopes and aspirations enshrined in chapter II of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1979 as the Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy which provide enough fo undation upon which the national communication P,Olicy can be built (National Communication Policy, 1990:5).
4.2.2 The objectives of the national communication policy are:
91 (d) To create a sense ofbelonging among Nigerians abroad and generate in . them the much needed patriotic sentiment for the advancement of Nigeria's interest and better external image, (e) To promote and project Nigeria's immeasurable cultural wealth to establish a distinct international identity,
(f) To ensure the promotion of cultural, educational and sporting interactions in the host countries fo r the development of wider programmes of cultural co-operation.
On the guidelines relating to the establishment, fu nding etc. of the Nigerian Information Service Centers (NISC), the policy recommended that:
(a) Nigerian Information Service Centers be established abroad to handle routine publicity functions, and engage in systematic development of . vital information of foreign policy significance in their respective areas of 9perations,
(b) Accordingly, the centers should be staffe d by well trained officers 111 public info-rmation management and should be linked to the News Agency ofNigeria's telex machines fo r up-to-date news on Nigeria and
. . the country's global activities in diffe rent parts of the world; (c) Location of all such information centers abroad shall correspond closely with an articulated fo reign policy strategy ; (d) Each center shall have a library holding books on Nigeria, brochures, documentary films and video tapes on Nigerian life and culture, a display of Nigerian arts and crafts as well as weekly NTA news cast,
cultural radio' programmes on tapes, daily newspapers and magazines '
' . from Nigeria; (e) Similar structures shall be established at all our missions on a smaller scale;
94 (f) For the purposes of effective professional control over operations of the centres, all administrative policies, posting of officers, guidelines and budgetary controls in the area shall be handled exclusively by the Federal Ministry oflnformation And culture .
• (g) The External Publicity Department of the Ministry should therefore be
properly staffed, funded and equipped to handle (f) above; (h) To enable effective publicity planning and programming, remittance of allocation to the centres shall be on a six months basis, rather than quarterly
(i) ln view of the strategic significance of and sensitivity to information in external relations; all information centres and staff abroad, whether
located within or outside !he mission premises, shall �e considered as part and parcel of our diplomatic outfit in countries of their location. Co�sequently, they shall come under the direct supervision of the head of mission to ensure strict compliance to diplomatic ethics and code;
U) All home based officers of the centres within the professional information- officer cadre of salary grade level 08 and above (civil .service class A) shall be entitled to diplomatic passport and privileges like their counterparts in the Ministry ofExternal Affairs. On the role of the Electronic Media as a veritable tool fo r achieving eff-ective external publicity strategy, the policy recommended that:
(a) The VON shall be used to transmit, forcefully, aggressively, Nigeria's position on all international issues, to the world and the medium shall be equipped to do so skillfully and effectively; (b) The VON shall respond promptly anq effectively to any and all fo rms I of negative manipulations of information by foreign media on Nigeria's domestic fo reign policies and interests;
95 (c) The Federal Radio Corporation· of Nigeria, and the Voice of Nigeria shall be the only electronic media in the country, to acquire the capacity to undertake long range broadcasting beyond Nigeria's borders and to the world at large; . (d) The thrust of the programming on the Voice ofNigeria shall be guided at all times by Nigeria's fo reign policy
fn order to maximize the communication sector input in the advancement of our fo reign policy objectives;
(a) The Ministry of External Affairs and other organizations with fo re ign relations schedules shall be required to hold regular briefing with journalists i� both the public and private sectors, to keep them abreast
of developments and our·view points on issues of international concern
. (b) The Government, through relevant agencies, shall support I sponsor periodic workshops at which Nigerian fo reign and diplomatic correspondents will interact with fo reign policy makers and experts fo r orientation and education (c) The News Agency of Nigeria should be adequately fu nded to expand and maintain its overseas outposts and operations.
In order to effectively achieve the fo regoing, the policy recommended the fo llowing implementation strategy: (a) Federal Ministry of information and culture shall reflect the recommendations made in respect of location, funding and staffing of Nigeria information centers abroad. (b) The budget of the Ministry shall be related to the responsibilities arising from policy recommendations on the aspect of external publicity ; (c) The establishment of an interministerial departmental committee on external publicity under the ausptces of the Federal Ministry of
96 Information and Culture to regulate and ensure compliance with guidelines; (d) The establishment of an Institute of National Onentat10n and Guidance fo r the orientation of all functionaries in the field ofexternal publicity
(e) Use information yentres abroad to give meaning to both Nigerian traditional contemporary and physical cultures, through informal and fo rmal expositions; o (t) Sponsor/ c -sponsor/ support visits and performances abroad by Nigerian cultural groups, performing artistes and spor1smen and Nigerian participation in fa irs and fe stivals; (g) Guidelines shall be issued regularly by the Ministry of External Affairs on Nigeria's fo reign policy objectives and national interest to aid the _ Voice ofN igeria in updating its programme philosophy and objectives fr om time to time;
(h) . The Voice of Nigeri� shall be strengthened technically and adequately funded fo r it to be effective; (i) Voice of Nigeria shall deliberately plan its programme with a view to . reaching specific target areas of the world at appropriate times of the day as dictated by Nigeria's national interests and fo reign policy strategies;
U) The staff of VON should go through adequate training and orientation to equip them fo r their job.
Chapter nine, paragraph 9.4 (a-j) of the document highlighted among other various issues recommendations on the nations external communications
. . channels some of which are located within the nation's boundaries, such as NAN and VON, while others are located outside the nation's borders, such as
97 Nigerian Information Service Centres (NISC), which are charged with the projection and defe·nce of the nations external image abroad.
At this juncture, an attempt is made to discuss and analyse the various steps taken by the various information organs towards the implementation of the NMCP as it affe cts Nigeria in the international information system. Section 9.4 (a) of chapter nine of the National Mass Communication Policy (NMCP) recommends that: "Nigeria information service centre be established abroad to handle routine publicity functions and engage in systematic (\evelopment of vital information of fo reign policy significance in their areas of operation".
Closely related to the above, section 9.4 (f) of chapter nine of the NMCP, specifically recommended that "For the purpose of effective professional· control over operati�ms of the centres, all administrative policies, posting of officers, guidelines and budgetary controls in the area shall be handled exclusively by the Federal Ministry oflnformationand Culture".
On the other hand, section 9.4 (v) of the NMCP, recommends as fo llows : "The external p�blicity department of the ministry should therefore be
properly staffe d, fu nded and equipped to handle (f) abov�"
Sequel to the above, the Federal Ministry of Information during the Shagari administration ( 1979 to 1983), took over the responsibility of implementing these policy measures by establishing Nigeria Information Service Centres abroad and subsequently posting information officers to these centres in order to handle the external publicity aspect of the nation in line with Nigeria's · fo reign policy. The main crux of this task entails professional execution of public information programs aimed at projecting the image of Nigeria outside her bqrders with the · aid of available modern media of mass communication
located both within and outside the nation. Presently, there are 12 information
98 centres; abroad; these include: London, Harare, Paris, Berlin, Rio de Janiero, Hong Kong, New Delhi, Johannesburg, Brussels, Washington and Moscow. The Nigeria information service centres distribute information on current realities at home, endeavours to correct misconceptions through the publishing
• of magazines and the production .of videos and films to correct the misrepresentations spread against the country by international detractors (Ofonagoro. 1 997: 39).
Broadly spreading, Nigeria's external publicity has 'the fo llowing specific objectives:
i) To serve as the government's organ for planning, processing, packaging and dissemination of vital information to enlighten the international community about Nigeria, her people, lier socio- economic potentials, aspirations, development and growth. ii) To pro:v�de professional information services which will project the image and reputation of the federal government and h�r people as a responsive society to ) . the external audience. iii) To maintain communication and media linkage and exchange appropriate information with the. international community so as to enhance international co-operation and understanding. iv) To provide data, statistics, information and all necessary inputs as a fo rm of fe ed back to enable the government of the day and the people of Nigeria to understand fo reign public opinion about our external policies as a way of assisting in the fo rmulation of short-term or specific external publicity objectives. (This suggests a monitoring system). v) To always project Nigeria as a united, dynamic and progressive nation . concerned with the welfare of her people as well as promoting equality and justice among them.
99 vi) To always project Nigeria as a champion of the African people and Africans in the Diaspora.
vii) To proj ect a dynamic image of the country, her people and government in their resolute March towards rapid economic and social development. • viii) To build a respectable image ofNigeria in Afi·ica and the world at large.
The fo regoing primary objectives of Nigeria's external publicity can be conveniently summarised as fo llows: - a) To favourably publicise Nigeria abroad. b) To attractively sell Nigeria abroad. c) To patriotically promote Nigeria abroad; and . ' d) To dyn,amically projeCt Nigeria abroad in line with the cardinal points of Nigeria's fo reign policy objectives (Federal Ministry of Information. 1996:25).
The issu� ·of fo reign policy is of great importance as fa r as Nigeria's external publicity programmes is concerned. This concept needs to be brietly digressed in order to aid our comprehension in the subsequent discussions. Though fo reign policy does not have universally accepted definitions, it however, revolves around the systematic fo rmulation and implementation of specificpol icy measures adopted by a nation in order to guide her interactions with other nations and international organisations (Aihassan, 1994:1 ).
In another perspective, a nation's fo reign policy involves the objectives, which it seeks to achieve in the international arena within the ambit of international law and order. It is on the other hand, an instrument ofachieving national objectives which sums up to constitute national jnterest (Toyin, 1999:13).
From whichever perspective it is viewed, the adoption of fo reign policy beqame inevitable among nations, in order to facilitate relations since none is
100 an Island to itself This phenomenon became more complex and highly essential in the contemportary times due to the intensity of collaboration, integration and co-operation among nations, which is fu rther oiled by the revolution in information technology.
Therefore, just lik� other nations in the intemational arena, Nigeria's fo reign policy has grown tremendously in response to the ipternal and external environment. in which it had to operate since her independence ·in 1960. Broadly speaking, the nations fo reign policy objectives are based on: i) Nigeria's internal cohesion. ii) The consolidation ofthe nation's political independence and freedom. iii) Development ofNigeria's economy. iy) Political and social development. . v) Maintenance of national unity and stability. vi) Total commitment to African solidarity and co-operation in economic,· social
' and cultural fields. vii) Non interference in the internal affairs of another state. viii) Desire for peace, security and prosperity in the world.
ln his assessment ofThe Significance of Foreign Image Building and the Role of Information and Communication, Nnoli, (1987) observed that: "Image - building is an essential strategy of fo reign policy. From the perspective of communications, the task of fo reign policy is, to create and reinforce fa vourable images of the country" (Nnoli, cited in the News Agency of Nigeria, 1994:85). From the fo regoing, one indisputable picture clearly emerged; that is, since fo reign policy decision makers of various countries take into consideration collection of images of the world which inform their policies towards other nations and international events, it quickly fo llows that the operations of
101 The fo rgoing assertion is substantiated by Mrs. Stella Arah, the Head of Nigeria Info rmation Centre in Johannesburg. While briefing the permanent
secretary, fe deral ministry of information, who was on an official visit to south Africa, she said that insufficient fu nding and late remittances have hindered the performance of the centre. According to ryer, the centre lacked a computer !letwork, which she said would enhance the eftective coverage of the Southern African Development Commission (SADC), which comprised
about 14 countries (National Broadcasting Commission, 2002: 20). This position was further elucidated by the Consul General, Nigeria Consulate
in Johannesburg, that it was not enough to have an information centre, where the staff were operating with out-dated communications equipment in a technologically advanced society like South Africa. He therefore postulated that it was not :possible fo r the centre to effectively discharge its
> responsibilities with such crude equipment. The Consul General further · lamented a situation where the NTA is poorly received in South Africa which impedes the flow of information on current happenings in Nigeria (NBC
News, 2002: 20 -2 1)
The djfficult financialposition of the NISCs is further clrearly painted in the fo llowing quarterly bu�get estimate of the NISC in Johannesburg, South . Africa.
Recurrent Expenditure a. Personnel cost - Foreign Service Allowances fo r the two $20,93 1.63 information officers b. Local Staff $10,000.00 c. Rent fo r two residential quarters $12,000.00
103 d. Utilities - Water, Postage, Telephone, Maintenance of Website, Security Services $9,200.00 e. Medical $6,620.00 f. School Fees $10,500.00 • g. Maintenance and runnmg cost of office pl�s fuelling and servicing of two officials $8,000.00
vehicles ·
h. Subscriptions - Newspapers, Magazines, .. CNN $3,500.00
1. Publicity $20,000.00
J. Local Tour & Travel $14,500.00
k. Hospitality (to Media) . $6,250.00
• TOTAL $121,501.63 .. Source: Federal Mmtstry of Information and National Orientation (2003)
> In addition to the $121,501.63 recurrent expenditure as stated above, the centre has an estimated capital expenditure of $ 150,000.00. 1t is essential to point out that the recurrent expenditure fo rms the bedrock of the operation of all the centres abroad. It is, however, sad to note that not all the budgeted operational funds are remitted to these centres. Even when fu nd are disbursed it is most delayed. This affects all the centres spread across the world. Therefore, the non remittance of funds as at and when due affect the morale of the officers. This consequently has negative impact on their productivity and effective discharge of their responsibilities.
The above scenario therefore depicts the difficulty surrounding the operations of most of the information centres abroad, which result from the parlous state
104 . of their finances. This to a large extent, shows that the information officers abroad have to rely on the good wilt of the head of their respective missions abroad. They are therefore subjected to the scourge of the bureaucratic bottlenecks at home, which hinders the flow of fu nds as at and when due .
• This phenomenon to a very large extent, negatively affe ct the purposes fo r which they posted to serve at the various centres abroad, and fo r which the centres established.
The News· Agency of Nigeria (NAN) also has its share of the problems bedevilling the pe�formance of Nigeria'·s external communication organs. Section 9.7 (c) of chapter nine of the Nation�] Communication Policy states that; "NAN should be .adequate�y funded to expand and ·maintain its overseas
. .outposts and operations'' However, due to inadequate funding, NAN has had to at a various times, close down its fo reign offices. For instance, between 1983-1987, NAN was compelled to close down 7 out of its 10 offices abroad thus leaving the agency with its original 3 bureaux in London, New York and Harare.
The Agency also at a time had to revise its policy regarding deployment of its correspondent's abroad. By 1988, grade level 09 and 08 officers were favoured to represent the agency at the fo reign Bureaux. This was moreso because at that time, the Bureaux had become too burdensome fo r NAN to carry. For instance, during the time under consideration, 47% of its recurrent expenditure was spent on eight persons (foreign correspondents) out of the more than 600 staff in the agency (News Agency of Nigeria, 1988).
Technological handicaps also pose a great threat to NAN'S operations abroad. The use of obsolete and outdated information gathering and dissemination equipment by NAN correspondents saddles them with the problem of filing 105 stories as fast and effectively as their counterparts in the Multinational News Agencies. This position was further corroborated by a number of fo rmer NAN foreign correspondents who fe lt that they were disadvantaged in several respects while serving abroad. They were handicappe� by technological and
• financial r�sources. The former correspondents generally fe el also that "for NAN and Nigeria to make a more significant impact in the search fo r a New World Information and Communication Order, more technologically efficient Bureaux are required" (News Agency ofNigeria, 1998). .
.This phenomenon to a very large extent contributed to the predominant role of such international news agencies like · Reuters, AF-P, AP etc. in the international information system. This position was vividly captured by
' ' Godfi_'ey Odu, a long time NTA fo reign correspondent while painting the
. picture of the handicaps fa ced by African journalists in an international · inform�tion system dominated by world reknowned media outfits like CNN, BBC, Reuters, AP etc. He concluded that:
The disparity in the technological wherewithal in information dissemination that is available to the media of the west as against those of the developing nations like Nigeria is very glaring... .Journalists from the west have satellite communication facilities at their disposal as well as microwave transmission equipment thal fa cilitates filing reports from locations. ...sometimes you spend hours trying to get across to base but because · of the nature of our communication system you can't... the equipment at our disposal are decades behind the west (Odu, 2002).
In another instance, while lamenting the status of the information gathering and dissemination equipment used by our foreign correspondents Godfrey Odu (Ibid) further that:
For instance, you are covering United Nations, where you have Reute!s, AF-P, AP, CNN and they are busy fi ling reports in minutes to their locations. But you as an African or Nigerian reporter. ..have to start shuttling looking for 106 outlets, making satellite booking that may not come through. This is fr ustrating �xperience,(Odu, 2002).
The scenario painted above therefore, shows the pathetic state of our information gathering and dissemination equipment which exposes our correspondents to an ill �quipped position thus hampering the effective and timely discharge of their responsibilities abroad. This has a very negative impact on the purpose fo r which the correspondents were posted to the various fo re ign offices ofNAN abroad.
Voice of Nigeria (VON) also suffe red a lot of neglect over the years. This media outfitwhich was established essentially for external broadcasting had to grapple with the problem of obsolete equipment, lack of foreign offices as well as untrained and demoralised staff. All these were the by products of , underfunding, which is quite contrary to section 9.6 (a) of chapter nine of the . National Mass Communication Policy, which states that: "VON shall be used to transmit forcefully, aggressively, Nigeria's position on all internationa l issues, to the world and the medium shall be equipped to do so skilfully and effectively ".
1t should be understood that the above task is unachievable under a parlous . .. financial position, which has characterised VON until the advent of civilian administration on May 29, 1999.
A careful study of the historical development of VON, as indicated in the preceding chapter, would suffice to convince one that VON has never had it so good fo r decades until the last three years when the organisation was
· entirely revolutionised with the procurement and installation of modern digital broadcasting equipment, extensive staff training and fa ir fu nding by the goven1ment. Using' its financial clout, the organisation fo r the first time in the entire history of its operation embarked on opening offices abroad; The first of which was its office in Pretoria, which covers the Southern African sub- 107 region. Its state- of - the- art equipment enhanced its reach and output
globally. This position can be attested to taking into cognisance the various letters sent to the organisation acrossthe world, some of which are reproduced below.
VON excites
" Th e reception of your station made me ver;; excited because 1 could listen to
you clearly in Japan. I thought that it 's a dr eam. l thought you broadcast
through the relay stations in Russia or Ch ina. Yo ur signal is almost the same
as !Is ian local station "
Hitosh Sugio Japan lih Nov. 2000
A fa mily �ffair in California, U. S. A.
"My son and I are reporting reception o.fyour English Language broadcast ... we listen to the voice of Nigeria at least fo ur to five times a week, and plan to continue ... Keep up the good work. "
Rod and Russell Buchanan Fair Field, Carlifornia 04 Noy. 2000 It's great to ·hear yo u
"I am pleased to hear from your station ... It 's amazing how fa r these radio signals reach ... " Robert A Park Lower Hurt Newzealand
These observations from, Japan, California and Newzealand are no doubt attestations of how a one time epileptic media outfit(VON) has bounced back . 108 to the world of international broadcasting of which it was initia11y set fo r. This is in consonance with the provision of section 9.6 (a) of chapter nine of
the National Mass Communication Policy. There is no doubt that if the tempo in sustained, the Voice ofNigeria would soon take it's rightful position in the world of broadcasting thereby informing it's international a,udience on the socio-economic and political aspects in Nigeria as wel1 as responding promptly and effectively against a11 forms of negative manipulations of information on Nigeria by the international media.
4.3 The Relationships between the Nigerian Electronic Medi·a and News
- Agency and The International Media
The Nigerian electronic media both public and private at various times in their developmental stages, established working relationships with the international media, news and multi-lateral agencies towards co-operation and collabor�tion in the area of program exchange, capacity building, technical assistance and training among others. These partnerships, which are mostly occasioned by signing memorandum of understanding (MOU) between two or more respective organisations, have profoundly impacted on the broadcasting industry in Nigeria: ..
The News Agency of Nigeria fo r instance established good relationship with
transnational news agencies across the world such as, Reuters, AP, AF-P, UPI etc. The News Agency ofNigeria was mandated by the decree establishing it to enter into partnerships with these organisations among others in the area of co-operation and collaboration, especially in the area of reception and distribution of international news. Section 16 (I) of Decree 19 of May 10, 1976 established that:
Not withstanding any arrangements which the Agency (NAN) may enter into or make fo r the reception and distribution of international 109 news, subscribers to the agency may, on request and or terms in regard to payment to be decided by the board, receive through the agency the fu ll service supplied to the Agency by any international news agency (cited in News Agency ofNigcria, 1994) In other words, NAN was to serve as a conduit through which the local media were to receive the services of international news agencies. "The reason fo r this is not far to seek in the overall context of the debate on the New World Information and Communication Order which seeks to redress the imbalances in the North-South flow of information" (NAN: 1994)
As a national news agency therefore, NAN was presumed uniquely placed in the position to stem the inflow of information to Nigeria, which the multinational news agencies often dish out as news about Nigeria in particular and the third world in general.
Pursuant to the a.bove therefore, the agency drew the attention of its subscribers to the relevant portions of the enabling decree, which points out in. particular that: "With effe ct from April this year, 1979, it will be illegal fo r subscribers of fo reign news agencies and other news services to make any direct payment fo r the services received" (NAN: 1994).
Consequent upon this development, NAN took steps to enter into news exchange or subscription agreements with the international news agencies fo r the widest possible coverage of events across the globe. NAN also established the foreign news desk charged with the responsibility of selecting and rewriting, where the need be, fo reign news, in accordance with the Agency's style, to r onward publication in NAN'S General News Service (GNS).
In April 1978, NAN signed its fi rst international news exchange agreement with the Associated Press .(AP). In addition to this, AP trained NAN staff by providing them with one month working attachment at both its headquarters and regional offices. In February 1981 the AP' S director of world services 110 conducted a three-week new writing workshop for NAN editorial staff in Lagos. Most of the participants at the workshop confirmed that, it had tremendously widened their horizon in the art of news writing (News Merchant, 1 982: 16).
In September 1979, a news exchange agreement was also entered into between NAN and Agence France Presse (AF-P). The AF-P's contribution
.. towards the realisation of such an agreement and the development of NAN, "Consisted in providing the agency with news receiving equipment and allowing NAN to collect, over one year, half of the revenue it used to collect from subscribers to its services in the country" (NAN, Ibid: 38). Moreover, the AF-P provides free technical training and spare-parts for the servicing of NAN'S equipment. In 1986, it. also assisted NAN in procuring a sizeable number of "Nardeux" radio receivers and teleprinters. With the advancement in the field of information and technologi�s, AFP installed state-of-the-art I , information gathering and dissemination equipment at NAN'S headquarters in Abuja. These equipment had greatly improved its capacity to deliver its services to its clients (Egwagu, 2002).
ITAR-T ASS, a Russian News Agency, also signed a news exchange agreement with NAN in April 1979. To facilitate the agreement, it rendered technical assistance to NAN in fo rm of installation and maintenance of equipment in order to enable NAN receive its services. Moreover, it offered a two-year technical training and scholarship in the USSR to NAN technical staff in the area of radio servicing and maintenance (Abui, 2002).
News exchange agreements were also signed with Reuters i� 1980. The two agencies also signed a news canier service agreement, which required Reuters to carry special NAN newscasts, six days a week to Nigerian fo reign diplomatic missions. The carrier service agreement lasted only three years as
Ill specified by the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) sign�d by the two agencies, while the news exchange agreement still exists. (Abui, 2002).
It needs to be pointed out at this juncture that NAN benefit more from the te w relationships enumerated above taking into cognisance the material and the • technical know-how derived by the agency in fo rm of assistance on news gathering and dissemination equipment as well as the training mostly offe red free to NAN technical and editorial staff, by some of these international news agencies.
. . In the private broadcasting industry, Africa Independent Television (ATT) and Minaj Broadcast International (MBI), which are "the dominant role players in this sector, have also established relationships with the international media. For instance, Minaj Broadcast Int�rnational entered into a program exchange agreement with the 'VOA to broadcast such programmes like, "African Journal"; '·'Straight ta,lk Africa" and "The Secret of Science". While AIT on the other hand entered into agreement with BBC (radio) to directly broadcast English and Hausa news to its audience in Nigeria on Ray Power 106. 5 FM
Station (Sunday, 2002). ·
The Voice of Nigeria, an organ principally charged with the responsibility of external broadcasting in Nigeria, also reached out and established several working relationships with international broadcasting bodies and multi-lateral agencies. This is in realis�tion of the fact that in today's world, fo rming partnerships with such organisations would greatly enhance its performance in the international information system. Thus, VON signed series of agreements with international radio stations and related organisations such as, Radio Deutsch Welle, Voice of America (VOA), Radio France International (RFI), Digital Radio mundial (DRM) and Commonwealth Broadcasting Association (CBA) among others. The agreements with these organisations were centred
112 on mutual benefits in areas of training, programme exchange and technical assistance among others.
Such collaboration .and global partnerships .entered into between VON and > • RFI, was in the area of exchflnge ofjournalists where VON sent its journalists to Paris to work fo r two weeks during which the journalists fr om Nigeria produced Nigerian Programmes fo r RFI which were aired worldwide. On the other hand, RFI sent its journalists to Nigeria to work fo r the same period.
For instance, RFI journalist reported the proceedings of the Human Rights Violation Investigation Panel, otherwise known as Oputa Panel, for RFT. Not only that, the French government through RFT donated and installed computer digital studio, at the broadcasting house, Ikoyi, Lagos, in 2000, while the French embassy in Nigeria donated a complete set of computer systems with lnternet facility to VON (VON Airwaves, 2002).
There �as also a very cordial working relationship between ·voN and Radio Deutsch Welle (Germany) in terms of programme exchange. VON also benefited from the collaboration with Deutsch Welle through the installation of satellite delivery facilities at its lkorodu transmission station. Through such facilities, VON d�livers its programme through satellite worldwide. Further to this, Deutsch Welle also donated I 0 computer systerrs and sponsored an 8 w�eks training course fo r two members of staff of VON, at the Deutsch Welle training centre in Germany, and a fo ur-week workshop fo r broadcasters tn modern broadcasting technologies in Kaduna, in April 200 1 (Jijiwa 2002).
The Commonwealth Broadcasting Association (CBA), an umbrella body of all broadcasting stations in member countries of the commonwealth also assisted VON in the areas of training and manpower development. The body trained two yoN staff in 'Singapore in July 2001'. In the same year, it also trained
113 fifteen VON engmeermg and technical staff m transmitter skills and maintenance. The objective of the training was to expose the engineering staffto the skills required in the proper operations and maintenance of the transmitters and othyr equipment in the corporation. In addition to these, a • UK-ba�cd communication outfit - South Midlands communications trained two VON staff in the programme and technical directorates in the area of skills and know-how on the operation of Outside Broadcasting Van (OB VAN) between October 29 - November 2, 2001 (VON Airwaves , 2001: 7). VON also contracted mutually beneficial relationships with the ·united Nation Development Programme (UNDP). As a . result of this, UNDP donated six computers, six printers and two photocopiers to VON in order to enhance its capacity building. Moreover, VON established working relationship with the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), by collaborating in the area of broadcast training through computer internet. In this respect, BBC trained· some VON Senior executives in Tnternet design and operations at its Bush
House headquarters, London. (Jijiwa, 2002).
Collaboration and global co-operation between VON and international media was fu rther demonstrated during President Obasanjo's three day state visit to
USA between May 10-12 200 I. VOA virtually covered all the events fo r VON. In this respect, VOA provided as raw materials. . fo r VON, all speeches and presentations by President Obasanjo, President Bush and UN Secretary General, Kofi Anqn. This scenario was vividly captured by the Director General, VON when he declared that:
For the ftrst time in the History of broadcasting in Nigeria, we had a collaborative effort fo r the coverage of President Obasanjo 's visit to US ... we had VOA in Washington covering the events fo r VON ...it was a very successful collaboration based on our relationship. (Cited in NBC News, 200 I: 16).
> •
114 In addition to this, VOA also sponsored training programme of VON engineers in Digital Studio Design, Operations and Maintenance in Washington, USA. (NBC News, Ibid).
The Voice of Nigeria also established relationships with the Digital Radio • Mundial (DRM) a Switzerland-based . global rad io consortium of digital broadcasters. The consortium offers the worldwide rad io market, high quality '
wide area coverage at low cost, by converting AM I SW medium bands to digital standards with FM sound quality. This is achieved because the new
technology can accommodate existing transmitters by as much as 25% while maintaining the same coverage. Broadcasters would also be able to transmit
programmes in 2 l�nguages, which is a plus in bilingual countries or in border
zones between countries with different languages. VON .. was the first African broadcasting organisation to be admitted to rhe organisation and the Director General, VON, was elected as the only African member of DRM Steering Board, at its General Assembly in April, 2001, in Las Vegas, USA. (Idowu, 2002: 21.)The DG, VON, maintained that, the admission of VON into DRM would boost the quality ofthe station's programmes to its listeners across the . globe. He concluded that; "this is a welcome development in broadcasting. Indeed, DRM offe rs a great potential and advantage fo r improved services to . AM I SW radio list(fners. VON and its numerous listeners will benefit greatly fro m this new initiative and invention in digital signals" (Cited in VON
Airwaves, 2002: 21 ). These international relationships and developments are great landmark in the history of international broadcasting in Nigeria. The collaboration and co operation as highlighted greatly impacted positively and enhanced, to a certain extent, the growth and development of broadcast media and the News Agency in Nigeria. This can be clearly appreciated taking into consideration the
115 enormous training (which was mostly free) rendered, especially on the
technical aspects of broadcasting, by the technologically advanced
international media and multi-lateral agencies. There is also the issue of
assistance in fo rm of state-of-the-art infrastructure donated to some of the
broadcasting organisations in the country, lack of which constitute great
impediments to the role ofNigeria in the international information system.
The issue of global partnerships and its impact on international broadcasting
was further elucidated by MacBride et al (1980: 269) in their
recommendations on ways to the realisation of the goals of NWICO, when
they concluded that:
The very notion of the NWICO presupposes fo stering international co-operation, which includes two main areas: international assistance and contribution towards international understanding. The international dimensions of communication are today of such importance that it has become crucial to develop co-operation on a world wide scale ...it is fur the international community to take appropriate steps ... by more fruitful and open relations of interdependence and complementarity, based on mutual interests and equaldignity of nations and people.
From the fo regoing, it fo llows that the issue of international co-operation and
collaboration, among others, if vigorously pursued, stands the chance of
enhancing Nigeria's resolve and commitment in the pursuit of achieving, to a
certain extent, the goals and ideals of the NWICO, which the nation has been
struggling to realise fo r decades. This however, poses great challenges among
which are inadequate information and communication infrastructural fa cilities
and personnel and above all, a poor technological base.
4.4 Nigeria and The New World Information and Communication Order. (NWJCO)
The issue of the New World Information and Communication order largely
revolves around redressing, the unequal relationships between the advanced
and more affluent countries of the north and the developing nations of the
ll6 south, in the sphere of packaging, production, distribution and reception of the international information.
The trend in the contemporary world of information and communication is that the affluent and technoJogically superior media of the west and north America provide the bulk of the international news, ensuring thereby the ' imposition of their values and cultural norms and attributes as well as political and economic interests on the rest of the world. In the prevailing circumstance therefore, there cannot be balanced information flows at the global level when more than 100 countries which constitute 75% of mankind own only 10% of the available media of mass communication in the world, which are mostly obsolete and to a great extent are fully dependent on the dominating transnational system. (International Organisation of Journalists,
1986:44 ). The thirq 'worl.d countries, Nigeria inclusive, had therefore fo r long regarded resistance to these trends as one vital aspect of the components of genuine independence. Indeed, this explains among others, the creation of regional, sub regional and continental news agencies within and among developing nations. lt also explains the convention of series of conferences and seminars, the fo rmulation and implementation of policy measures and the establishment of co-operation and collaboration in a bid to further expand and enhance their performances in the international information system.
At the 161h session of the general conference of UNESCO m 1970, the delegation of the developing nations fo r the fir st time referred clearly to the , problem of unequal distribution of the media at the global level. They also made reference to the need fo r a better and balanced international news
117 exchange system and the need to maintain cultural identity (Mohammed,
l99l :84)
The fo rmal involvement of the Non-aligned Movement (NAM) in the quest
fo r a new informatiot: order dates back to the 1973 Non-aligned summit in Algiers. The outcome of the summit recommended the fo rmation of Non aligned news pool (NANAP) as an alternative to the international power and influence of the "Big Five news agencies". The Summit also produced an action programme fo r redressing the imbalances in the existing .international information flows and the need fo r the South to act in unison in the realization of that task; a position that was to be reiterated by the non-aligned conferences and delegates from the South at international organizations and fo ra · throughout the 1970s (A11yne, 1995: 121). ' .
The calls and agitations fo r a better and balanced international information · h exchange were therefore adopted in the l 61 UNESCO session in 197 4 where , the need fo r an intergovernmental conference on communication policies was tabled. Thus, the 1st conference on communication policies was held in San Jose de Costa Rica in July 1976. The conference recommended the fo rmation of new national and international communication policies and the declaration from the conference highlights the fa ct that communication has today come to be accepted as a permanent and strong factor in the national growth and development and at the same time considered as a veritable force in international relations. Above all, the conference recommended fo r national communication policies conceived within "the . context of national realities, free expression of thought and respect fo r individual and social rights"
(Allyne, 1995: 86).
118 Traber M. (1985/86: xii) on the other hand, vividly captured part of the reasons why the South resented the unidirectional flow of international information thus:
The rights of nations t�· participate in a multidirectional flow of information on the basis of equality was the starting point in demand fo r the new information order, which was mainly the concern of non aligned nations (mostly the developing countries of the south). It was their way of saying no to their increasing integration into the corporate village of global communication dominated by the North, saying no to the 'freedom' of private corporations to infringe on the rights of nation states (cited by Uche, 1996:1 ).
The clamour fo r restructuring of the global information and communication system was furthereluci dated by one of the exponents of the new order,
Mustapha Masmoudi, who superbly and eloquently argued the southern case as fo llows: -
This situation of imbalance has naturally prompted the wish radical
fo r overhaul of the present international information system . . . and hightened the need to establish a new world order fo r information ..� Its primary purpose must be to initiate further reforms and to : establish other new international order, more just and more beneficial to whole community of mankind . ... In calling fi)r this new world information order, the developing countries are doing no more than invoking the rights solemnly proclaimed hy the present day international community in such important texts such as ... The Universal Declaration of Human Rignts... the International ·Covenants on Civil and Political Rights and the relevant resolutions adopted by the UN General Assembly (Uche, 1996:2) .
The agitations fo r the NWTCO both by individuals and states m the Third World were feared by the industrialised north, that its hegemonic control and the monopoly of the international information and communication system would be destabilized and disestablished. UNESCO therefore fo und itself in an uncomfortable and embarrassing situation due to the vehement oppositions and indictments especially by US and Britain as welJ as western scholars and 119 international media. UNESCO's "Crime"f against the north, was its commitment to the NWlCO movement. This was vividly captured by Roach (1990: 283) when he posits that:
The UNESCO'S role in Sijpporting the N\VICO movement was far more polemical than that of the non- aligned countries, not only because it had to contend with its powerful western membership, but
also of its long 'standing commitment to the free flow of information doctrine ... UNESCO became a fo rum fo r third world dem.ands fo r the 'decolonisation of information' ...Third world complaints came to be crystallized around several key areas: news flow, TV flow, advertising and communication technologies.
The west therefore considered the NWICO as an attack on the Euro-American domination of international communication and information field and indeed an attack on capitalism. Moreso� it was during the administration of former
. US president Ronald Regan, that the UNESCO was castigated in the worst form for spearheading the NWICO debate�. This resulted in the eventual . . ) . withdra\val of US and Britain fT om the organization (Uche, Ibid).
Despite all these developments and condemnations by the west and its media against the NWICO, the non-aligned countries under the umbrella of UNESCO went ahead with their mission. At its 19111 General Conference in Nairobi, Kenya, UNESCO mandated its Director General Ahmadou M'Bow, to undertake a study of all communication problems in the contemporary society against the background of technical progress in international relations with due regard to their complexity and magnitude (M'Bow, 1980:xiv). The organization therefore set up an International Commissions fo r the Study of the Communication Problems which began its activities in December 1977 under the presidency of an Irish diplomat, Mr. Sean MacBride. On 181h
December, 1978, the UN General Assembly voted to pass the idea of the
NWICO m resolution 33/1 15 B on international relations in the sphere of
120 information. At the UNESCO, the MacBride Report- the most comprehensive assessment of the world's info rmation and communication order, was
presented and approved by the General Assembly in 1980 and from then on, its recommendations as the guiding spirit of the NWICO (Murtala, lbid).
In acknowledging the enormous problems bedeviling the existing international information system, Sean MacBride concluded that:
In the 1970s, international debates on communications issues has stridently reached points of confrontation in many areas. Third world protests against the dominant flow of news from the industrialized countries were often construed as attacks on the free flow of information.... Varying concepts of news values and roles, rights and responsibilities of journalists were widely contended, as well as the potential contribution of mass media to solutions of major world problems. (MacBride 1980: XVII).
The Commission a·ft:er rigorous and tasking sessions, spanning to about two years, studying the global communication problems aimed at reordering the international information system otherwise known as the New World Information and Communication Order (NWlCO), came out with recommendations which are summarized as fo llows:
I. Strengthening independence and self reliance
That there is need fo r the developing nations to move from the disadvantaged and dependence position to a position of self-reliance by developing comprehensive and well articulated communication policies which must be linked to the over all socio-economic, cultural and political goals. They should also adequately develop languages in order to secure the complex and diverse requirements of modern communications. The developing nations should also make elementary education available to all and wipe out illiteracy as well as supplementing from school to non-formal education. They should as we ll
121 develop the media industry, both print and electronic, by establishing strong news agencies as well as effective radio and television networks.
II. Social consequences and new tasks
The Commission implored for the integration of communication into the overall development planning as well as fac ing the technological challenges by embarking on research and development in the new communication technologies. It also recommended fo r strengthening cultural identity, establishing cultural policies in order to fo ster cultural identity. That the issue of commercializing communication should also be de-emphasized. There should also be access to technical information within nations necessary fo r
technical decision making and th�re should be encouragement in the exchange of technical information and above all, the development of comprehensive and mticulateq national i�formation policies.
Ill. Professional Integrity and Standards
The Commission recommended standardized educational preparations and specific professional training programmes and instructions fo r journalists as well as their responsibilities for promoting truthfulness, accuracy and objectivity and improved international reporting. It also recommended smooth entry and exit of foreign journalists in the comity of nations. This is to ensure hitch-free collection and transmission of news within and among nations. The press in the developed countries should allocate more space and time to reporting events from the developing nations. Journalists who serve under · cover in espionage should be totally condemned. Jourmilists should be adequately protected against harassment, threats, intimidation etc.
122 IV. Democratization of Communication
That the fi·eedom of speech, press, information and assembly as well as human rights should be protected. The media should contribute to the up-liftment of human rights. The right to .be informed should be fo r all and equally there should be rights to privacy, participation and public communication. There is the need to remove all obstacles to access to information such as: Censorship and arbitrary control of information, concentration of media ownership etc. and there should also be editorial independence. Diversity and. choice in the content of communication should be encouraged (variety of messages, ideals, opinions etc.) The media should be decentralized and diversified. Attention should be given to news on women and children. The Commission also recommended fo r progressive implementation of the New Communication and Information Order.
· V. Fostering· International Cooperation
There is the need for international cooperation fo r the development of the communication sector, which should be given equal priority with other, sector such as: health, education, industries, agriculture etc. There should be a careful establishment of relationships between new international economic order, and new information and communication order. There should be a strengthening of collective self-reliance by the developing countries by de emphasizing dependence in the fieldof communication. There should also be international assistance and contribution towards international understanding, which should be achieved through world wide scale cooperation and replacing the dependence, dominance, inequality to interdependence and complementarity based on mutual interests and dignity of nations. Promoting measures that would ensure the setting up ofthe New World Information and
123 Communication Order. There should be the establishment of joint activities in the field of communication such as: regional and sub regional data banks as weJl as infonnation processing centers and specialized documentation centers. The Commission also recommended fo r strengthening international understanding by way of international peace, security and the cooperation and lessening of international tension, which should be encouraged by the mass media. There should also be cooperation among the media professionals and their associations at the global level, as well as taken extreme care in the reportage of internationalevents.
At this juncture an attempt is made to highlight and critically analyse what the NWICO is supposed to achieve with particular reference to the Nigerian experience in the international information system and also find out what roles did Nigeria play in an attempt to achieve the ideals of NWICO twenty six years after its inception.
Thou !. h various governments in Nigeria from independence to date, embraced the i(.cals ofNWICO with zeal and vigour, most ofthe problems bedevilling the . tchievements of such ideals, are traceable to the ever-increasing techrological disparity of the North against the South, poor telec ..mmunic ation networks, insufficient fu nding, bureaucratic bottlenecks, insuiiicient manpower as well as ever-widening gap between policy form i llation and implementation among others.
Agai.1st this background, it is important to point out that in order to appreciate this �. ituation, it is necessary to keep in mind the fa ct that the establishment of NWk:O is practically nothing other than a question of an attempt to dem< cratise and decolonise the system of international relations in the
124 information and communication fields. To this end, the Sean MacBride Report which to a great extent provided a chance to a detailed discourse on the global communications problems could therefore be regarded as a blue print for global communication problems and policies.
The establishment of the News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) in 1978, represents part of Nigeria's response to the lopsidedness in the North - South tlow of international information. The overall aim was to achieve what the MacBride Report described as "a new, more just and more efficient world information and communication order" (Cited in The News Agency ofNigeria, 1988:42).
From the above fa cts, one can conveniently establish that though a lot needs to be done to enhance the performance of NAN in gathering and disseminating information on the true position of Nigeria across the globe, the agency has, going by its modest achievements since inception, taken the right steps in the right direction towards the achievement of the ideals ofNWICO.
Nigeria's resolve in the pursuit of the goals of NWICO, fo r instance, is also demonstrated when the country consistently supports and defends the establishment of Pan African News Agency (PANA) and what it stand fo r as the leading purveyor of "News on Africa by Africans." This position is further elucidated by Nzekwu (1994) when he declared that:
The idea to fo und an African News Agency was mooted in 1963. The executive secretary of the NAN implementation task fo rce was at the 1976 Kampala meeting of ministers of information, which examined the ideal further. In 1979, a high-powered Nigerian delegation attended the Conference of African Ministers of Information in Addis Ababa. PANA was established in that meeting and Nigeria was chosen as the headquarters of its West African regional pool. NAN has not only attended all meetings of the Inter Governmental Council (IGC) ofPANA and its committee, it also plays
125 an active role in the development of the Agency (News Agency ofNigeria, 1994:41-42).
Other active roles played by NAN in the development of PANA include. running the affairs of PANA in 1983, before its own staff arrived in Nigeria, because PANA had no resident employee at its West Atrica headquarters which was also located in NAN premises in Lagos. Other activities it undertook on behalf of PANA, were the installation of news transmission facilities such as telephone and telex machines in liaison with the then Post and Telecommunications (P and T) and Nigeria External Communications (NET). In addition to the above, NAN permitted ··its Assistant Director, Technical' Services, to take part in PANA technical committee meetings in Dakar, released its Editor-in-Chief to PANA fo r nine months inorder to draw up PANA editorial charter and· its style book, granted him leave of absence in . 1986 to serve as PANA'S first Director of Information and allowed its
· General. Manager to serve as PANA Consultant at a workshop on "Training fo r News Agency Journalism" (Nzekwu, 1994).
From the foregoing, it can be establi�hed that, the release of NAN's professional members of staff, both technical and editorial; to serve in various capacities in the fo rmative years of PANA, the provision of office accommodation fo r PANA in NAN's premises in Lagos as well as manning it until its staff arrived, the assistance rendered by the P and T and NET in the installation ofPANA'S news gathering and dissemination equipment in Lagos and above all, the conducive environment as well as the good will by the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, glaringly demonstrated how committed Nigeria is towards the realisation of the ideals ofNWICO not only fo r this country but also fo r the benefitof other sister African countries.
126 Another area of critical importance to the realisation of the ideals of NWICO is communication. MacBride et al (1980:207) vividly captured this scenario
when they concluded that:
It is generally recognised that both communication development and over all developmerft are national problems where every country has to solve by relying essentially on its resources. Nevertheless, while the principle of "self reliance" is of paramount importance, it must not be fo rgotten that communications on the national plane and communication at the international and regional levels are clearly inter- linked. It is therefore essential ... only to determine national communication policy measures designed to fu rther overall development.
In another instance, the MacBride Report recommends that "since
comm�nication is interwoven with every aspect of life, it is clearly of utmost importance that the existing communication gap be rapidly narrowed and eventually eliminate?" (MacBride et al, 1980:254). The Report therefore recommends that:
Communication be no longer merely regarded as an incidental services and its development left to chance. Recognition of its potential warrants fo rmulation by all nations, and particularly developing countries, of comprehensive communication policies linked to the overall social, cultural, economic and political goals (MacBride et · al, 1980:254).
In realisation of the importance and potentialities of effective communication policies and networks, Nigeria, a country largely regarded as the leading· African nation with the largest radio and television networks in black Africa, attempts to tackle the communication problems through various government policies and organs. Principal among these was the convening of the National Mass Communication Policy Seminar in 1987, under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of Information and Culture. The seminar was aimed at putting together various professional views in order to ensure an effective and maxrmum .utilisation of the nation's communication resources. · After 12
127 sessions during which 52 commissioned papers were presented which were subsequently analysed and synchronised at various meetings, a policy document titled The National Mass Communication Policy was produced to serve as a comprehensive guide in Nigeria's information and communication
• sector. Parts of the r�commendation of the policy was the need to establish a _ Nigerian , Communications Commission (NCC), which indeed was subsequently established by Decree 75 of 1992, to regulate the communications industry in Nigeria.
At. independence in 1960, Nigeria had only 18, 724 telephone lines. Since then until today (2000) the installed capacity has risen to about 700,000 lines, what this indicates is that the subscriber base has grown at an average of only 10,000 lines per annum nation-wide over the past fo urty years! The picture is even worse when you realise that only 400,000 lines are actually . connected to subscribers ...inf act if we analyse the present 400,000 connected subscribers base critically, it may be reasonable to assume that at least half of that number are actually lines to corporate and government organisations who have multiple lines. It might infact be that not up to 200,000 individual Nigerian fa mily units actually have telephone lines in their premises (Ndukwe,.. 2000:2-3).
In another instance, the Ministry of Communications painted the fo llowing pathetic picture of the Nigerian telecommunication industry when it declared that:
It is disturbing to note that the installed switching capacity at the end of 1985 was about 200,000 lines as against the planned target of 460,000. All the exchanges were analogue.
128 Telephone penetration remained poor, equal to 1 telephone line to 440 inhabitants, well below the target of I telephone line to I 00 inhabitants recommended by the International Telecommunications Union (lTU) fo r developing countries. The quality of service was largely unsatisfactory. The telephone was unreliable, congested, expensive and customer unfriendly (Federal Mini£try of Communications, 2000: 12). The wireless telephone services were not better. In the mid 1980s analogue cellular telephone services was introduced in Nigeria almost simultaneously with South Africa. However, as at the year 2000, while Nigeria can only boast of 20,000 analogue cellular mobile telephone lines covering only 20% I of the country, South Africa during the time under consiqet:ation had two major GSM operators with a total installed base of about 3 million digital mobile lines covering about 80% of the country and one of the operators had
the subscriber base of about 150,.000 lines per month. (Ndukwe, lbid: 5). At the regional level, it is sad to note that, one could hardly make a direct telephone call to say Benin Republic from Nigeria, but one could easily get
Paris, Frankfurt and other "major capitals" of the world in . one dial. Ironically, developed countries, using latest digital equipment link African countries to each other more easily than the continent does within its environment. In the words ofMohammed (1991 :96):
Many currently independent Afi·ican nations (Nigeria inclusive) suffered from colonialism and are still suffering fromneo-c olonialism. The threat of neo-colonialism is in the fo rm of electronic colonialism ... which is being fe lt throughout the continent with the exception of few countries ' where the differences is not distinctively marked.
' Having realised the inadequacy and inefficiency of the national telecommunication sector in the country as discussed above, as well as having recognised the vital importance of effective communication system fo r achieving the goals of the NWICO and overall development as enunciated in the MacBride Report, the present administration in Nigeria took bold steps in
129 order to rej uvenate the sector through the promotion of the policy goals of total liberalisation, competition and private sector-driven growth of the Nigerian telecommunication industry. Towards this end, The Vice President
Atiku Abubakar on 1st of February 2000 in his capacity as the chairman of the National Council on Privatisation, inaugurated a 22-member Telecommunications Sector Reform Implementation Committee (TCSRlC) under the chairmanship of the then Minister of Communications, Alhaj i Mohammed Arzika. (Federal Ministry of Communications, 2000).
Principally, the driving fo rce fo r this initiative was in recognition of the fact that:
Developing countries like Nigeria that want to participate effectively and become equal patners in the emerging global market need to have a .functional telecommunications
system . ..Global telecommunications provide the opportunity fo r the country to share in the . wave of science and techno logy developments ...that accounts f() r the remarkable economic growth in the advanced countries and the newly industrialised countries (Ibid: 1 0).
With these in mind, the government embarked on expanding the telecommunication sector as well as reducing the tariff charges fo r telephone calls· and telephone lines both fixed and wireless. Tt also joined the global mobile communications community by launching the Global Satellite Mobile (GSM) telephones in 2002, by licensing 2 private operators, MTN AND ECONET to compete side by side with NITEL.
It is however, amazing to note that though NITEL had an upper hand in terms of infrastructure and networks, the two private operations have rolled out over 1 million lines in their first six months of operations. Despite collecting about
$170 million by the fe deral government as proceeds fo r selling GSM licenses · to private operators, NITEL cannot boast of rolling out 20,000 lines as at June 2002. Not only that, during that same time, NITEL GSM only covers Ahuja
130 and Lagos while MTN and ECONET cover at least 1/3 of the country. A regrettable situation. The private operators experience series of problems among which are inadequate inter-connectivity thus causing congestion and degeneration of services. This singular factor had infact imposed limits on . . how much expansion can be embarked upon by the operators and still maintain acceptable levels ofqual ity services.
It is not to the credit of NCC and NITEL that such a basic service that works perfectly in smaller countries like Ivory Coast, Ghana, Cameroon and Benin Republic is not perfectly working in Nigeria . The problem that lies ahead is that GSM may still be a very popular means of telecommunication world wide, but before we, know it, it wil1 be on its way out to provide room fo r · second . generation mobile technologies such as Universal Mobile · Telecommunications Service (UMTS) in which, voice data and other multimedia services will be provided via one handheld device (Adegbola, 2000:7).
Besides, the stakeholders in the Global System of Mobile Communications (GSM) have blamed the Federal Government on its fa ilure to fu lfil her own side of the agreement. The operation and service providers while testifying before an ad-hoc Committee set up by the House of Representatives to probe the GSM operations in the country, lamented that the fe deral government after collecting W285 billion as proceeds fo r sales of license, fa iled to provide the required facilities needed for providing quality service by the operators. Moreover, they pointed out other problems such as incessant power fa ilure and increment in fe es charged fo r mounting equipment on each base. Other problems are the 5% tarrif customs charged them on their imported equipment as against 100% tarrif-free status granted to NITEL. (Okocha and lawai, 2002: 1-8). Adegbola puts it in another perspective, wheH he noted that "As at
131 now, NITEL's control of the largest telecommunications network in the country, is employed as a tool fo r unfair competition against private telecommunication operators (Adegbola, 2000:7)". This kind of situation requires a serious approach and commitment by the gove1nment. •
It is interesting to note that the performance of MTN and ECONET does not seem to bother NITEL. For them, it is business as usual. MTN and ECONET
' are recording monthly turnovers in billions of naira and each amount of money made by them is a great loss to NITEL who had a decades-head start over the fo rmer. IfNITEL had done its job well, there wouldn't have been any need fo r private operators like MTN and ECONET as well as many others who are on the waiting list, to further capture the GSM market in Nigeria .
. Another disturbing signal is the lukewarm and untransparent attitude by some top goyernment officials towards the privatisation and deregulation of the telecommunications sector in the country. When the present administration embarked on privatisation and deregulation of the sector, the idea was the provision of cheap and efficient telephone services to Nigerians. The govermnent made it clear from on set that the guiding principles of the entire exercise were those of transparency and accountability. In other words, whether taken from the perspective of privatisation by the Bureau of Public Enterprises (BPE) or deregulation by the National Communications Commission (NCC), the watchwords were transparency and accountability. It is however, surprising to note that, over 2 years into the privatisation and deregulation exercise of the telecommunication sector, the commitment of the BPE and NCC in handling the exercise has left much to be desired.
For instance, Investors International London Limited (IILL) emerged as the preferred bidder for the sale of NITEL offering the bid price of 1.317 billion
132 USD fo r the 51% shares of the organisation. It paid the initial. I 0% of the bid price and was expected to pay the balance of 1.85 billion USD on February
11, 2002. fiLL could not fulfilher part of the bargain and therefore had to be granted extension to look fo r funds in order to pay up. This position clearly
• subverted the rules and regulations guiding the NITEL privatisation. The fa ct
that Il LL fa iled to pay up the balance as at February 11, 2002 ought to have led to the immediate abortion of the process. BPE had the options, in order to fa cilitate the process, of either making the offer to the reserved bidder or re advertising the bidding in which many companies such as Communications Investors Limited (CIL) which is also reputed to have solid financial base, would have positively responded as was the case during the initial I advertisement fo r the sale ofNITEL. But for reasons best known to BPE all these viable options were ignored thereby putting an obstacle to the deregulati9n of the telecommunication sector in the country, (Nkemjika, 2002). '
From the fo regoing, one can establish that the processes fo r the privatisation and deregulation of the telecommunication sector have been put in a mess due to incompetence and untransparent tendencies exhibited by the leadership of BPE and NCC. It is sad to note that the federal government has currently suspended the entire process. What a setback? This is a regrettable situation which denied the nation the benefits derivable from the privatisation of NITEL. Besides, it would have rejuvenated NITEL into an efficient and effective telecommunications organisation thereby improving tremendously, the communications networks in the country.
A !though the introduction of GSM and licensing of private operators have contributed in revenue generation to the government as well as in providing employment to a lot of Nigerians, with ECONET alone employing over 1,000
133 Nigerians aside specialised consultants ( okocha and lawai, Ibid), the government still has a lot to do in the area of expanding the network of the
nations telecommunications industry. One recognises the move towards the realisation of this goal by government, taking into consideration the amount of
' resources expended on some Nigerians currently undergoing training in the area of satellite communications in London through a British-based company. It is believed that this would assist the country in launching its satellite to be known as NIGERSAT, which would greatly fa cilitate telecommunications expansion in the country. ( Sule, 2002).
The inefficiency and inadequacy of the · telecommunication sector today accounts greatly for the congestions in our streets. People have to travel over long distances to deliver messages that could easily be done by telephone. · Moreover, our radio and television correspondents cannot file their reports
fro m va�rous locations in the country because of lack of telecommunication fa cilities /networks. At the commercial level, credit cards are hardly used except in some fe w state capitals because of unavailability of card revalidation machines, which largely depend on reliable telecommunications fa cilities. Becau·se of all these, among others, the socio-economic development of the nation is adversely effected. Suffice it to say that despite numerous effort by successive administrations in the country, inadequate connectivity to telephone Jines (both fixed and wireless) which is principally the by product of obsolete and inadequate infrastructure and funding, remain the major cha11enges to be taken up by the government. Thus, the ideals of the NWICO in the area of telecommunication is far from being achieved.
Closely related to the above is the issue of literacy in computer Internet. The advantages that the internet has over older technologies such as rad io, newspapers and video is that it is the firsttool that allows fo r users to send,
134 rece1ve, narrowcast or broadcast their own information, thus making it a natural information democratising tool (Economic Commission of Africa, 1999:3). The federal government had taken steps to encourage computer fnternet literacy and information technology. In this regard, various policy
• measures have been taken among which were the approval of an information technology policy in 2001 and the establishment of Information Technology Unit (ITU) in the Federal Ministry of Information and National Orientation in the same year. This was in recognition of the enormous potentials· offe red by information technology in speeding up the working process with attendant increase in productivity, saving cost and time, access to superior and more up to- date information as well as easier and cheaper communication both domestically and internationally.
In this respect, all the Directors and Heads of Units in the Ministry were trained in computer Internet, and were all allocated laptop computer, while substantial number of Information Officers were also trained in this regard.
' Moreover, all the Federal Information Centres (FICs) in the country were allocated computers and trained on how to use them. Attempts are also at an advanced stage to link all the centres and Nigeria Information Service Centres (NISC) abroad to the Ministry's Website. (Odusote, 2002).
It needs to be emphasised that the impact of the computer Internet, fo r instance, in the electronic media has been phenomenal and presents interesting opportunities. One radical change is that traditional fo rms of production have been greatly · altered by the low cost of information and communication technologies thereby enabling almost every one with access to a computer to I become a purveyor of information. Jn this regard, it is important to point out that the local radio and television stations in countries such as Senegal, Ghana and Uganda among others can be heard on Internet. Therefore, through web-
135 casting, nationals of these countries in the diaspora would be able to tune in via the Internet to their nation's radio station. (Economic Commission of
Africa,Ib id: 14-15). It is however sad to note that as at June 2002, the fe deral government-owned broadcast media ie NTA, FRCN and VON are yet to achieve such standard.
It should be noted that the information technology policy approved by the fe deral government, which aims among others, to develop information infrastructure in the country are right steps in the right direction towards the achievement of the NWlCO ideals. The obvious questions however is, how many Nigerians have access to computer internet and further how many have the know-how of utilising the technology? So fa r, in Nigeria access to New Communication Technologies such as computer Internet have been restricted ' . to cities, living out the 70% of Nigerians who live in rural areas (Adegbola, Ibid). Ultimately, these among other problems such as incessant power fa ilure across the nation, are the challenges facing Nigeria in achieving a culture of literacy in information technology which goes fa r beyond passing legislations and introducing new policies. The NWICO also has as one of its principal aims and objectives, the desire to remove obstacles in the prevailing state of concentration of information and communication technology in fe w countries of the world and fe w transnational corporations located in Western Europe and America. This situation led to the monopolisation of the technological know-how in these · fields as well as the ever-increasing dominant roles of these nations and the transnational corporations in the international information system. To arrest this situation, the MacBride Report (1980:289) recommended that:
The concentration of communications technology in a relatively fe w developed countries and transnational corporations has led to virtual monopoly situations in this field. To counter these tendencies, national and
136 international measures are required, among them are reform of existing patent laws and conventions, appropriate legislations and internationa I agreements.
Indeed, these recommendations might be taken as referential blue prints for the developing nations, Nigeria inclusive. The MacBride Report however, • seems to be assuming too much in this resp·ect, by leaving the various issues
•, as well as mechanisms fo r the manufacture, control as well as applications and
employment · of fe w communications technology to the "reformists" of national and international legislations and agreements. The issue at stake goes beyond law reforms. Other issues such as the inherent nature of the new communication technology, their changing patterns and fo rms, their utilisation as informatics and telematics as well as the diversity and prevailing world political configuration and entiti�s, have all contributed in making non-sense of any serious postulation on law reforms on the issue under fo cus. Besides, the information and communication technology are largely manufactured and controlled by the developed world who decide which type of communication infrastructure to sell and to which country. The fo regoing statement was succinctly captured by the fo rmer Director General of NTA, Alhaji Mohammed Ibrahim in his analysis of "Emerging Trends in Media in Developing Countries: A Nigerian perspective". According to him:
The general . direction amongst developing countries of South East Asia is at variance with what obtains among their African counterparts. While transnational corporatiorJ:s establish research and production fa cilities in Asia, they seek only markets fo r leftover equipment as out dated ones fh r Afi'ica (Ibrahim, 1996:80).
It is important to note that, neither, UNESCO nor the lnternational Telecommunication Union (TTU) nor International Broadcasting Organisations (IBC), has got any power on any nation or Multinational
. National Corporation (MNC) to decide expl.icitly the parameters as it affects the manufacture and sales of communication infrastructure. l-Ienee, the MNCs IJ7 manufacture, control and distribute to the developing nations, as they deem fit. Moreover, they decide at wi11 to inconvenience their consumer clients, mostly in the developing nations, just because th�y manufacture and control such technology. For instance, the New Nigeria Newspaper of December 27, 1985 · reported that:
INTELSAT intended to move the satellite on which Nigeria is curtyntly hooked on the Indian Ocean about 66 ,degrees further east, ...Nitel engineers in Lagos are said to have protested when they were notified of the INTELSAT . plan and officials were dispatched to Washington DC headquarters ofthe organisation to argue the country's case (cited in Mohammed, 1991 : 15).
The New Nigeria fu rther informed that the country "would rather be relocated" than accept the INTELSAT plan to move the Indian Ocean satellite, it would have worseAed the already precarious domestic satellite communication transmission." Among other problems, the move would have led to a "realignment of the antennas of the country's 20 earth stations" whose
consequences in the disruption of domestic services could affe ct the NT A Network news relay, to say the least. It is sad to note that even afterthe high level NITEL delegation trip to Washington DC, Nigeria was still relocated to JNTELSAT VA on the Atlantic. Consequently, domestic news and other transmissions were therefore disrupted fo r days (lbid).
This therefore significantly shows that ownership mechanism of the new communication technologies greatly dictates utilisation mechanism. By this, the transryational corporations have access to information in various fo rms through powerful satellites and the monopoly of the latest communication gadgets. It logically fo llows that they have access to power to determine the usage of communication technologies in various developing nations, Nigeria
138 inclusive. This position is greatly enhanced by our lack of technological know-how to counter such moves by the MNCs.
1t would suffice to note that the above development occurred 5 years afterthe publication of the MacBri.de Report and therefore exposed the inherent loophole in the Repmt on the control of the prevailing concentration of · information and communication technologies in few developed nations and other multinational corporations.
The fa ilure of the developed nations and the multinational corporation to pass the relevant technical information on communication equipment bought from them is also still persisting. For instance� some communication equipment recently imported by NAN are clearly marked "DO NOT OPEN". However,
when these · equipment have technical problems, NAN technical staff open them and sometimes repair them. But such attempts have limitations because sometimes these equipment have to be either abandoned or referred to the manufacturers,for repairs, at an astronomically high cost (Egwugwu, 2002). The goals of NWICO as it affects the communication and broadcasting . industry in Nigeria therefore leaves much to be desired.
The NWICO also aims at achieving improvements in the area of international ' ' reportage. The Ma�Bride Report recognises the fact that factual presentation of news is one of the problems that persists in the international information system. It also recognises that the reasons fo r these may not be unconnected to issues like varying conceptions of news and information values as well as government viewpoints (MacBride et al, 1980:263 ).
It is essential to point out that the characterisation of international flow of news from North to South is principally based on fixation and stereotyped misperceptions by the west against the developing nations, Nigeria inclusive. It is not that they don't hear the positive news about Nigeria but they have an 139 already-prepared mind fixed at reporting Nigeria in a bad light to international audiences.
In trying to proffer solutions to situations such as the one painted above, the MacBride Report (Ibid) recommended that: • Conventional standards of news selection and reporting, and many accepted value, need to be reassessed if readers and listeners around the world are to receive a more fa ithful and comprehensive accow1t of events, movements and trends in both developing and developed countries... The act of selecting certain news items... While rejecting others, produces in the minds of audience a picture of the world that may well be incomplete or distorted. Higher professiot�al standards are needed fi>r journalists to he able to illuminate the diverse cultures and beliefs of the modern world (MacBride et al, Ibid).
Over two decades after these rec�mmendations, one can conveniently say that little or nothing was achieved on the issue of balanced reportage on Nigeria by the international media. The international media correspondents in Nigeria . especially BBC, VOA and CNN have not been re flecting a sufficient understanding of the problems, constraints and challenges before the Nigerian nation in their reportage, there are therefore a lot of imbalances in their reportage which mostly border on inaccuracy on true picture of events in Nigeria.
For instance, CNN in January 2002, through its Nigerian correspondent Mr.
. Jeff Koinange, repprted th�t Nigerians pr�fe rred the return of military rule than the present state of living death (Zagga, 2002). While this is a view of some fe w Nigerians who were interviewed in Lagos, while reacting to the draftingof the army to restore law and order as a result of civil disturbances in some parts of the city. One can conveniently say that these people, though are entitled to their own opinions, form an insignificant portion of the Nigerian I populace, majority of whom prefer democratic rule to mili_tary dictatorships.
140 The CNN report is therefore a distorted and misrepresented version of the true yearnings ofNigerians.
In his assessment of Professionalism, Ethics and Roles of Foreign Media Correspondents in Nigeria (2000:7), the Director General of the Voice of • Nigeria (VON), Mr Taiwo Alimi, painted the same picture as above. According to him:
During the disturbances in Jos and Kano, the reports aired on the fo reign media contained extreme exaggerations of the loss of lives and property. Statistical checks at the hospitals, morgues and police stations showed gross misrepresentation of figures of the dead in Jos and Kano. Not only that, the general insinuations were that Nigeria was barbaric and backward. Without justifying the USt? of violence to settle differences, shall we also say that they are barbaric and backward in Northern Ireland, which has been in an endless internecine conflict (2002: 17).
From the fo regoing, it can be established that the issue of fi xation and stereotyped misconceptions are the principal parameters adopted by the international media on its reportage on Nigeria while at the same time deliberately neglecting the fact that a balance of views is what is paramountly needed to allow iisteners and viewers to come to a better understanding of issues at stake in Nigeria. Moreso, factual jourmiHsm demaryds of its practitioners, a sense of balance and accuracy. One can also establish that the international media adopt such postures, among others, by turning a blind eye to the positive side simply because the negative sells.
Consequent upon the above, one would gladly ask, how much of the heroic acts of many patriotic Nigerians who brought relief, in cash and kind, to the victims of January 2002, bomb explosion in Ikeja military barracks have we seen and heard op BBC, CNN and VOA? Ironically, months after the
' September 11 200 1 incident in USA we are constantly shown the positive news of the American government and its nationals who brought relief to the
141 victims. Added to these, we were also clearly shown the "good effort" being made by the Bush administration to bring to book the suspects and perpetrators of the incident, not only to appease the Americans and
par_ticularly American Jews in the congress, but also to show to the world how
"anti-terrorist" the American fo reign policy is, which is a clear case of double standard considering their roles in middle east crisis and its concomitant results of loss of lives, of innocent children and women, among others, both on
> the Palestinian and Israel sides.
Furthermore, this researcher once served in the fo reign media accreditation sub-unit of the Federal Ministry of Information and Culture. A sub-unit that co-ordinates and monitors the activities of visiting and resident fo reign media COTTespondents in the country. Tt is government standing policy that all foreign journalists must be cleared by government organs such as the State . Security Services and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs while the Federal Ministry of Information subsequently convey the approval of such clearance
to the journalists before they embark on their assignments in the country. It is ' observ.ed that some of these journalists, in their desperation' to cover events particularly of chaotic and negative nature, used all means at their disposal, including their contacts with people in the corridor of power, to find their ways into the country without the required clearance. The correspondents mostly spend fe w days in the country and file their reports to their headquarters even while they await clearance. Som�. of these Journalists engaged in filming some strategic location such as military · barracks, telecommunications and oil installations without necessary clearance from the security agencies. This situation has a grievous security implications on the country. This explains why the Federal Ministry of Information attaches officersto monitor the activities of such Journalists. 142 In a situation where foreign correspondents come into the country, mostly fo r the first time, spend a fe w days and conclude their assignments, there is the tendency fo r such reports to be misrepresented. A clear case in point here was the "60 Minutes on Nigeria" a film produced by Columbia Broadcasting Services (CBS) journalists on corruption in Nigeria. The journalists entered the country and performed their assignment without fo llowing the necessary official procedures. To a great extent therefore most of the fo reign correspondents in Nigeria lack the adequate historical knowledge or antecedents of the country, the politics, the economics as well as the cultural norms and values ofNigerians. Hence, balanced and factual reportage suffers in place of distortion and misrepresentation of facts.
It can therefore be established from the fo regoing that the implementation of the NWJCO in Nigeria as fa r as the reportage of factual happenings are concerned is yet to achieve the desired objective of adopting conventional standards and accepted values of international news selection and reporting.
The issue of development and adequate financing of radio and television networks as essential components of mass communication, occupies a special · position in the NWICO ideals. This is based among others,· on the premise that "development support communication" is essential fo r mobilising initiatives and providing information required in various fa cets of national development, such as agriculture, health, education, industry etc. (MacBride et al 1980:256).
The federal government in an attempt to realise such goals, fo rmulates and implement policies aimed at developing and expanding radio and television networks in the country. Moreso, the government through these media of mass communication, disseminates information on various socio-economic and political issues as well as mobilises and conscientises the populace on
143 particular are in dire need of increased budgetary allocation in their network
expansion drive. The private broadcasters are also complaining of difficult
situation in which they operate particularly in Abuja due to their inability to acquire land to build their permanent offices. For instance, AIT and MBI as • well as the ABG Communications, which are among the major role players in
private broadcasting, are all currently transmittin in small makeshift offices.
owned by ABG Communications at Mpape hill, Abuja. This, accompanied
with epileptic power supply among other problems ts an unconducive situation fo r such operations. This pathetic situation requires urgent goverrunent assistance in order to encourage private broadcasting in Nigeria.
The NWICO also encourages democratisation of communication particularly in the d�veloping nations like Nigeria.This includes extension of communication freedoms to individuals as well as the removal of obstacles
such as, · censorship, arrests, torture, imprisonment, intimidation and · assassination ofjournal ists as well as arbitrary control of the media organs by governments among other constraints in information gathering and dissemination practices. In order to achieve these goals, the MacBride Report
(1980:265-27) therefore recommends that: "Communication needs in a democratic society should be met by the extension of specific rights such as, , right to be informed, the right to inform, the right to privacy, the right to participate in public communication". The Report further recommends that:
Attention should be paid to communication needs of women. They should be assured adequate access to communication needs ...Those in charge of media should encourage their audience to play a more active role in communication by allocating ... broadcasting time, fo r the views of individual members ofthe public or organised social group.
145 It is important to note that various successive administrations in this country particularly military regimes have engaged in �rrests, detentions, murders and intimidafion of journalists which have greatly impeded the realisation or the principle of democratising communication in Nigeria as enunciated by the NWlCO.
For instance, the Gowon administration promulgated Decree 7, which fo rbade all Newspapers in the country fo rm giving undue publicity to strikes and other civil disturbances. The Buhari regime, under Decree 4 jailed Tunde Thompson and Nduka lrabo both of the Guardian Newspapers, fo r one year. The Babangida administration enacted Decree 23 which prescribed death . penalty fo r rep01ts or writings that disrupt the general fa bric of the country or any pati of it. In addition to this, the administration was alleged to have ' played role in killing a prominent Nigerian journalist and a co-founder of the Newswatch magazine, Dele Giwa. Furthermore, the regime of late General Sani Abacha has a record of detaining and torturing journalists whose activities were considered "inimical" to the state. As Agber (200 1:1 03) puts it "these decrees and prohibitive legislation's provided legal cover under which journalists were harassed, imprisoned and tortured" thi� hostile atmosphere consequently impedes press freedom in the country and by extension serve as an obstacle to the realisation of the right to inform and be informed which the NWJCO aims to achieve.
However, on coming to power, the present administration tried to ensure the promotion of the ideals of democratisation of communication by distancing itself from arbitrary arrests and detention of journalists. Moreover, various government broadcasting media organs also ensure active participation of audien�es through such programmes like, "Tonight at Nine", "Tuesday Live" organised by NTA and "The President Speaks" which is on the other hand,
146 handled by FRCN. There are also "Dissection" and "Political Platform" which are both interactive programmes organised by MBI. These ensure live participation of audience through telephone calls to the station in question. The major problem with this however, is that only citizens who have
• telephone lines, which are mostly located in state capitals, have the opportunity of participating. Hence, a substantial number of Nigerians are deprived from participating in these kinds of programmes. There is also the problem of poor reception of NTA network programmes and lack of efficient telecommunication networks in the country, which fu rther impedes the , achievement of democratising communication in Nigeria.
International co-operation and collaboration is also one of the maJor instruments aimed at achieving the NWTCO goals. The MacBride Report (1980:268) noted that "the very notion of NWICO presupposes fo stering international co-operation, which includes two main areas: international assistance and contributions towards international understanding". In this
respect, the. onus lies on the international .community to adopt appropriate measures that would enhance interdependence and complementarity in place of dependence, dominance and inequality, based on mutual interests between nations.
l.n line with the above, the MacBride Report (Ibid) further noted that:
Developing countries have the primary responsibility fo r undertaking changes to overcome their dependence in the field of communications. The actions needed begin at the national level,· but must be complemented. by fo rceful and ,decisive agree�ents of bilateral, sub-regional, regional and inter regional levels. Collective self-reliance is the cornerstone of a NWICO. Based upon these, the MacBride Report (1980:269) specifically recommends that:
Attention should be given to co-operation among national news agencies to further development of the news agencies 147 pool and broadcasting organisations to the non-aligned countries as well as general exchange on regular basis of radio and television programmes.
It is important to note that various Nigerian electronic media have at various times established working re lationships with the international media and multilateral agencies, fo r co-operation and collaboration in the area of programme exchange, technical assistance and capacity building among others. For instance, the News Agency of Nigeria (NAN) has established partnerships on news exchange with international media organisations and news agencies such as Associated Press, Reuters, PANA, NANAP, United Press International, Ghana News Agency, Zambia News Agency, Middle East News Agency, Sudan News Agency etc. The NTA has established such relations on programme exchange with Canal France International (CFI) CNN, Mnet etc. MBJ and AIT have also established working relations with BBC and South African Broadcasting Corporation respectively. The VON, more than any of the above media outfits, had an extensive working ' relationship and collaboration with the international media · such as, Radio France International (RFI), VOA, BBC, Radio Deutsch Welle, Commonwealth Broadcasting Association CBC, Sudan National Radio, Digital Radio Mundial, South Midland Communications etc.
The area of international co-operation and collaboration to an extent has been tremendously beneficial to the Nigerian electronic media particularly in the area of technical training on handling various aspects of modern digital communication equipment as well as assistance received in fo rm of information and communication hardware. The major beneficiary in this respect is VON whose position has been tremendously improved as a result of international partnerships and collaboration.
148 It is however regrettable to note that almost two decades after its conception, the NWICO is yet to achieve the desired results upon which it was established. Indeed, redressing the imbalances in the transnational exchange of information to a very large extent depends on the possession and·
• development of appropriate technology as well as investing heavily in the information and communication sector. Most of the developing nations including Nigeria are still lagging behind in this respect. This epitomizes that the quest for democratizing global flow of information as envisaged by the goals and ideals of NWICO left much to be desired. The fa ilure of the developing nations, including Nigeria to achieve a fa ir and balanced international information 'fl ow leftthis nation with little or no alternative than to either individually or regionaJly defend themselves against the international media onslaught. Indeed, this assertion was corroborated in various papers presented at the 5th Conference of Ministers of Non-Aligned Counties (COMTNAC) held in Abuja in September, 1996.
For instance, the then Nigerian Minister of Information, Dr. Walter Ofonagoro, lamented on the bad image given to the developing nations. He concTt;des that the' case of Nigeria in this case is more glaring taken into cognizance the fact that the information media portrayed Nigeria in the most perniciouspic ture as a corrupt and criminal society on the brink of collapse.
Equally, Professor Abu Sayeed, the Minister of information of The People's Republic of Bangladash observed that, The press and electronic media of the developed countries still dominate the flow of information. This affects the international news coverage, which is characterized with some kind of biasness and . one-sidedness, without fully re-flecting the interests of the developing countries. The non-aligned member countries have been striving fo r long fo r establishing a NWICO based on equality, justice and democracy� 149 This is a clear manifestation of the non-realization of the ideals of the NWJCO 15 years after its establishment, by a country that has been among the major stakeholders in the movement.
On the other. hand, India painted the fo llowing picture of the international info rmation system during the same conference:
The time has come to take effective steps fo r reviewing the NWICO, fo r its ideals and its roles in the fa ce of rapidly changing technologies. The vital questions fa cing the developing countries is that of bridging of the gap between ' information rich' and 'information poor' countries. The existing imbalance and inequalities in the field or in fiHmation and communication hatter under the image of the developing countries.
Perhaps, the finaldec .laration ofthe conference speaks volumes of the existing lacunae in the international information system. The ministers unanimously established that: i). The struggle for the NWICO should be intensified in spite of the end of the cold war, since the challenges and realties which informed the call fo r the NWTCO still exist. ii). The continued imbalances and inequalities in the field of international information and communication therefore highlight the serious implications which the negative situation portends fo r the Non-Aligned countries and stress the urgent need to establish the NWICO on the basis of the principles of independence, progress, democracy and mutual co-operation. iii). The long history of the efforts fo r a NWICO not withstanding, the salient objectives are yet to be realized. They therefore expressed concern that the developing nations are still impoverished, not only materially and economically, but in terms of equitable endowments and opportunities in the fieldof global information and communication. 150 iv). They also emphasized the need fo r information communication strategies to be rooted in deep historical and cultural processes, and urged that, the various models and perspectives of the media ofthe developed countries should not be allowed to unduly determine lifestyles and orientations of media policies in
• the developing countries. In this context the, ministers considered of utmost \ . importance the reactivation of the concept of the NWJCO . and pledged to promote it both in the UN as well as other international conferences, including those of UNESCO. Tndeed at the heatt of NWTCO is the dominance of the Euro-American nations in the field of international information and communication. This dominance has not yet been properly redressed, take into cognisance the fo regoing analysis, thus the maintenance ofthe status quo with the developing nations at the receiving end. In fact one should point out that the north - south dichotomy 1n the fieldof information, just like in the sphere of the international economy widens by the day.
151 REFERENCES
Agber, Kwaghkondo (2002) "Press Freedom and Democracy in Nigeria" In Nigeria Theatre Journal, Vol. 6 No 1, PP. 101-103. Adegbola, T. (2002) "Towards a Unified Regulatory Policy fo r the Convergent ICT Industry in Nigeria". Paper Presented at National Information and Commwtication Infi·astructure: Policy, Plan and Strategies Workshop, Under the auspices of the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology, Ahuja: 2002. Alimi, Taiwo (2000) "Professionalism, Ethics and Role of Foreign Media Correspondents in Nigeria", in VON AIRWAVES, VoL l No. l, p 17. Alhassan, Hadi Y. (1994) "Nigerian Foreign Policy In Perspectives: 1975 - · 1994'' Seminar paper delivered at the National Institute of Public Info rmation , Kaduna: 1994. Amadi, Tony et a1 (200 1) Radio Nigeria: Yesterday,Today and Tomorrow, Lagos: Federal Radio Corporation ofNigeria. Economic Commission fo r Africa( 1999) Globalisation and Information Age : Role of African Information Society, Addis Ababa: Economic Commission of Africa. Economic Commission of Africa ( 1999) Democratising Access to the lntormation Society, Addis Ababa: Economic Commission of Africa. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1987) National Mass Communication . Policy, Lagos:· Federal Ministry of Information and Culture. Federal Ministry ofinformation and Culture (1996)Nige ria Information Service Centre Operation, Manual, Lagos: External Publicity Department. Federal Ministry of Information and Culture (1996) Handbook fo r External PublicityOffice rs, Lagos: External Publicity Department. Federal Ministryof Information and Culture (1994)Handbook on Information and Culture, Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information and Culture. Federal Ministry of Communications (2000) National Teleconununications Policy,Ahuja: Federal Ministry of Communications. Ibrahim, Mohammed ( 1996) "Emerging Trends in Media in Developing Countries: A Nigerian Perspective", In Media and The Twenty-First Century,Abu ja: Nigeria Union of Journalists. InternationalOrgan isation of Journalists(1 986) New International Information and Communication Order, Prague: International Organisation of Journalists. MacBride, Sean et al (eds.) (1980) Many Voices, One World: Communications
152 and Society: Today and Tomorrow; Paris: UNESCO. Mohammed, Murtala (1991) New Communication Technologi es and Society, Kaduna: Nation House Press. Ndukwe, E. C. (2000) "Telecommunications: Challenges for Nigeria in The 21st Century" Seminar Paper delivered in Ahuja: 2000.
Toy in, 0 . .J. (1999) The Concept and Practice of International Relations, Abuja: Joycryss Ventures Ltd.
UNESCO (1980) Infomatics: Vital Factor in Development, Paris: · UNESCO. UNESCO (1996) Freedom ofExpression in the Age of Information Highway, Paris: UNESCO. Yerima, lsmaila (2002) "DemystifyingCompu ter In Nigeria" in Thisday, Vol. 8 No. 2545, April II, P. 20. Nkemjika, U. (2002)"GSM Operators Blame Federal Government on their woes" in Thisday, Vol. 8 No. 2552, P. 27.
153 CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.2 Summary
It is apparent fro m this study that Nigeria since Independence has developed various policy measures and established several institutional frameworks to enhance its information capabilities both n�tionally and internationally. The establishment of such organs like the VON, NAN, NISC, among others clearly explains the nation's desire to project its image positively at the global level. Thus, in addition, the country has fo rmulated the National Mass Communication PoUcy, whose major fe atures as fa r as the international information system is concerned are enshrined in Chapter nine which deals with the nation's external communication structure.
The ,government monopoly of broadcasting media was broken with the establishment ofNational Broadcasting Commission (NBC), under Decree 22 of 1992, which statutorily charged the commission with the responsibility of, regulating and controlling the entire broadcasting industry as well as processmg radio and television licenses. This subsequently led to the emergence of private broadcasting in Nigeria.
The international information system is on the other hand dominated by powerful transnational news agencies like Reuters, AP, and UPI among
others. These agencies are backed up by equally stron� and influential radio and televisi�n stations located in Europe and. America among which ·are CNN, BBC, VOA, CBS etc. The dominance of these international media organizations is sustained due to the vibrant economy, technological
154 superiority, expertise and commitment from both the leadership and the fo llowership. These major characteristics seem to be grossly inadequate in the developing nations, Nigeria inclusive. This scenario to a very large extent, gave the international media the wherewithal to dominate and control the production and distribution of international news ·· in the international information system. It also empowers them to negatively project the image of the developing nations, Nigeria inclusive, to the international audiences. The picture that clearly emerges here is the prevailing scenario in the international information system with a clear characteristic of imbalances and inequalities in the international flowof information.
In an attempt to redress these phenomenon, Nigeria along with other Non Aligned nations iri ,conjunction with the UNESCO championed the call fo r
' democratizing the international information system, to ensure balance in the flow of international information. This subsequently led to the conceptualization of the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) in the early 1970s and the subsequent empanelling of the Sean MacBride Commission to look into the global information and communication problems. This report was adopted in 1980 by the UNESCO under the title MANY VOICES, ONE WORLD: (COMMUNICATION AND SOCIETY: TODAY AND TOMORROW).
In an attempt to achieve the ideals of NWICO, Nigeria established· relationships with vanous national and transitional ·news agenc1es, international broadcasting organizations as well as multilateral agencies such as UNDP. These relationships border on training and capacity building, program exchanges, information and communication infrastructural development, embarking on measures aimed at launching communication
155 sate11ite (NIGERSAT) and launching of telecommunication as well as Information Technology Policies among others.
5.3 Conclusions
This research established that the international information system of which
Nigeria is an active participant since 1962, · is dominated and effectively controlled by the developed nations. This has been accentuated by the preponderance of the powerful news agencies and broadcast media in these nations, whose activities are fa cilitated by the availability of up-to-date
communications t�chnologies which enha�ce faster and efficient ways of information packaging, processing, dissemination and reception. These are further augmented by a virile economy and expertise as well as the strategic importance the leaders of these nations attach to the information sector. Further more these nations use the international media to further maintain their dominance in the international socio-economic as well as political configuration. This scenario therefore reestablishes the Jact that information is might, especially in the prevailing international relations.
Another significant picture that emerges from this research is the issue of the western cultural intrusion into the Nigerian society. The issue of cultural imperialism as perpetrated by the international media still continues to the . present day where the country is daily bombarded with television signals fro m Europe and America, using such communication technologies such as the Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS). These to a very large extent, has had a profound negative influence on our society by alienating us from our culture and linking us to the western culture other wise known as the 'global culture'. This study has also established that, in order to derive the benefits available in global partnership in international broadcasting, the Nigerian electronic media
156 and news agency establish good working relationships with the international media and multilateral agencies. This is in the area of programme exchanges, technical assistance and capacity building and training among others. In order to enhance its performance in international information, Nigeria evolved policies and institutional fr ameworks such as establishing and maintaining Nigeria Information Service Centres (NISC) charged with the responsibility of fa vourably projecting the image of Nigeria abroad. Other institutions such as NAN and VON also post con-espondents abroad with the aim of disseminating fa ctual information about Nigeria.
One of the greatest handicaps that is easily identifiable is the dearth in the technological whe'rewithal that is required in information packaging, . . processing and dissemination in Nigeria. This is explained by lack of state-of the-art equipment such as: microwave transmission facilities, miniature equipment such as digital cameras, satellite communication fa cilities (e.g. satellite phones used fo r filing in reports while covering international events abroad) and other new information and communication technologies that would enhance transnational exchange of information.
The issue of funding also poses great obstacles to Nigeria's ro le in the international information system. The electronic media such as NTA, FRCN, VON and NAN are greatly under fu nded. Paucity of fu nds hinder acq uisition and effective deployment of the required communication technologies which would have enhanced the discharge of their statutory responsibilities. This position was attested to by the DG NTA on the Tuesday 27111 August, 2002 NETWORK NEWS, while lamenting the state of the NTA transmission and broadcasting equipment. Paucity of fu nd also explains why VON is yet to start webcasting through the Internet as well as the delay in opening its offices across the world. This problem is also experienced by NAN, which is
157 desperately trying to expand its international coverage by openmg more bureaux. These could not be accomplished due to insufficient funding. There is also the serious gap between policy formulation and policy implementation as it affects disbursement of fu nds to the Nigeria Info rmation Service Centres. According to the National Mass Communication Policy, these centres are supposed to receive funds after every six month of the year. But the contrary appears to have been happening in this respect. The picture that generally emerges from this scenario is that the government arms' responsible fo r the external information services are greatly under-funded. Such a situation does not encourage effective projection of the country's image abroad.
Closely related to the above is the fact that our system does not confer the kind of importance that the information sector requires compared to the premium that governments or even private broadcastitig organisations in the developed ·nations accord to the information sector. We are yet to realise the potency of information as a very vital tool fo r national development and international relations. This sector is yet to receive the desired commitment by ttie leadership and the led as a veritable tool fo r the promotion and protection of our national interest. This scenario can be explained by the inadequate fu nding ofthe sector among others.
This study has also established that poor and inadequate communication infrastructural facilities hamper Nigeria's optimum role in the international information system. Principal among these are poor telecommunication fa cilities and networks as well as inadequate and intermittent power supply in the country. Moreover, the existing international laws and conversions in the information and communication fields as well as lack of aggressive implementation of comprehensive research and development policies in the
158 informatics and telematics are also identified as obstacles to Nigeria's role in the international information system.
Closely related to the above is also the problem of inadequate skilled technical • manpower. Our technicians and engineers in the broadcast media are yet to fu lly grasp the workability of the new communication technologies at their disposal. This position was also attested to by the DG NTA on Tuesday 2i11 August, 2002 on the NETWORK NEWS while lamenting the insufficient technical manpower available to the NTA. This position is also applicable to
the other govemm�nt owned electronic m�dia such as VON and FRCN. There is alsb the problem of abandoning broadcast equipment after several attempts to maintain and fix them have fa iled, thus wasting fu nds injected fo r their procurement.
The issue of restrictive practices of some multinational corporations, which produce the communication technologies presently in use in Nigeria and their protectionist tendencies of not releasing adequate technical information about their products, is another source of concern as fa r as the acquisition and proper deployment of appropriate communication technologies m enhancing Nigeria's role in the international information system.
Redressing the imbalances in the international information flow as it affe cts Nigeria in this respect, revolves around the possession and appropriate deployment of technological wherewithal as well as experienced personnel in the information and communication fields and the injection of enormous capital into the sector. This study clearly states that Nigeria is still lagging decades behind in this respect. One may ask, who is in control of the world information and communication technology? It is the Multinational Corporations located in Euro-American nations who produce and control the
159 technologies. Nigeria in this respect is just a consumer nation. This is principally where the problem lies. Thus, the imbalances in the international informatioti which the NWICO aims to redress, would continue to widen even at a fa ster rate taking into cognisance the ever-increasing power of the new
• communication technologies. Moreso, a cursory look at the contents of the NWTCO and what it intends to achieve, clearly indicates that the request of developing nations, Nigeria inclusive, touches greatly on the technological superiority which, among others, is the life wire and basis fo r the north's clear-cut dominance in the international information system. To this end, no natiof1or race would ever compromise in this respect, since it fa lls within their core national interests. The challenge before Nigeria as far as achieving the goals and ideals of NWICO as well as making significant impact in the international information system are great and enormous which requires extra commitment as well as stressing and emphasising on the implementation of the realistic policies.
5.4 Recommendations
For Nigeria to make meaningful progress and take its proper position and
subsequently play an effective role in the global information system, th� government in col1aboration with the private sector must necessarily strive to . harness the existing resources in the country in order to put in place appropriate information and communication infrastructures. This is because the underlining strength of most of the developed nations of the world largely revolves around their ability to effe ctively develop and deploy their resources fo r the enhancement of the information and communication capabilities of their nations. There is therefore the need for increased budgetary allocation and concomitant release of funds on the part of the government to the information and communication sector. This is in realization of the fact that
160 investments made in this sector are of paramount national interest and promotive of collective benefitto Nigeria.
The electronic media particularly the government owned such as NT A, VON, NAN and FRCN need to incc.ease their tempo of acquisition and application of the modern technology as an imperative requirement fo r the national broadcasting industry. This is aimed at bridging the existing gap in the flow of international information between Nigeria and the rest of the world. Subsequent upon this, the need therefore arises fo r the conversion of our entire information gathering and dissemination equipment from analogue to digital infrastructure. This is aimed at keeping pace with developments in international communication. This is particularly important taking into cogmzances the fa ct that digital broadcasting technology g1ves the broadcasting industry enormous advantages. Broadcasters will be able to offe r more programme channels with concomitant effe ct of providing an
increase in options .available to audience as well as wider reach. It also enables them to offe r better quality signals, that are less vulnerable to environmental impact.
Access to technical information on communication technologies is of paramount importance in the international information system. In this regard, Nigeria should spearhead the fo rmulation and subsequent implementation of coherent policy measures that would guarantee sustained flow of technical information on spare parts and other major components of broadcasting such as transmitters, communication satellites, digital cameras etc. This should be done in concert with other countries as well as the transnational corporations involved in the production of broadcasting hardware. Moreso, access to such data is necessary fo r taking major decisions as it affects the information and communication industry in Nigeria. 161 The existing practice in which information technologies are indiscriminately imported into the country should to discouraged. In the words of Maida ( 1 996: 1 32):
Though it is beneficial tg a developing nation like Nigeria to procure equipment and other related facilities from diversified sources abroad, emphasis should however, be placed on giving· preferential treatment to the Supplier/Multinational Corporations who are ready to provide the required technical information over those that sell informatics as tum-keys.
This would greatly reduce wastage of resources, such as a situation in which some of our information and communication equipment are abandoned due to lack of technical information required to fix- them.
Equally important, adequate training and capacity building are necessary m providing qualified personnel such as technicians, engineers, managers etc to the broadcasting industry. Consequent upon this, there is the need fo r adequate investment aimed at developing human resources m our broadcasting industry fo r effective Information Communication Technology (ICT) strategies, including measures in all aspects of ICT management applic�tions as well as the adoption and maintenance. In addition, specific training programme,should be developed on ·scientific and technological areas of broadcasting. Therefore adequate training and re-training programmes are necessary fo r.the technical staff of the NTA, FRCN, VON, and NAN so as to update their professional knowledge and technical expertise in various technical sectors ofthe broadcasting industry. In another perspective, Ofonagoro (1995) holds that:
Every modern society regardless of its level ofdevelopment; is ever conscious of what the rest of the world thinks and fe els about it. Such consciousness is a functionof the sense of responsibility
162 and decorum with which the civilized society is imbued (cited in Zaki, 1998:127).
Ofonagoro ( 1995) fu rther maintains that response to the international media onslaught should be dignified, matured and effective. Nigeria should not fe el daunted in this regard, bdt continue to sustain self-confidence of "Our compatriots" He also pointed out that such people like the, Jews, Arabs, Chinese have trod this path of western media attack not by inflicting self doubt on themselves but establishing effective image protecting lobbies in the corridors of power in the press circle of the western world. This requires a more comprehensive institutional approaches, which include among others the establishment of Nigerian Information Agencies to depend and protect Nigeria's national interest at all times.
In this respect, in order to achieve an effective· publicity reach and message processing and satisfactory delivery, Nigeria Information Service Centers (NISC) abroad should be reorganised and revitalised. They should be administered by an independent Agency of government similar to the Public ' Affairs Section of the United States Embassy fo rmerly USlS and the British } council'. This measure should be backed up with adequate funding. Seasoned and very senior officers can be sent out to man such posts. It is expected that Nigeria's role in the international information system would have been further enhanced if the agency is independent and operates on it's own with technologically superior information and communication gadgets.
There is also the need to reposition and completely revitalize VON and NAN, in order to achieve their primary goals and objectives. For instance, it is no longer disputable that a strong national news agency such as NAN, is a vital tool towards sustaining national and international reportage. In this regard, . these institutions should be adequately funded and given the necessary
163 diplomatic wherewithal to open more fo reign bureau, which should be equipped with the State-of-the-art information and communication equipment, so as to effectively discharge their fu nctions. This would to a very large extent upgrade Nigeria's role and impact in the international information system. On the issue of the intern�tional media and its negative impacts on the Nigerian Society, Zaki (1998:120), suggest that there is the need to strictly regulate the influx of fo reign films as well as the encouragement of production of decent indigenous fi lms by the National Film and Video Censors Board. On the other hand, there is the need to fo rmulate and strictly implement policy measures to over tax fo reign films that mostly pollute our cultural norms and values, thereby streamlining importation as well as enforcing stern measures to check such practices.
The issue of interrupted remittance of funds to the fo reign correspondents and information officers at our various infonnation centers and bureaux abroad does not encourage productivity and commitment to duty. Thus, allowances and other overhead costs budgeted to fund these arms of external publicity should be disbursed as at and when due. This is largely due to the fa ct that funds form the basis of fo reign service.
There is an urgent need to reform the existing patent laws and conventions on international communications. In this regard, Nigeria should sponsor and canvass for such amendments in favour of the developing nations. This can be spearheaded by Nigeria through such international agencies like the UNESCO, ITU, African Union, Conference of Ministers of Inforlnation of Non-Aligned Natipns (COMINAC) etc. Moreover, as MacBride et al . ' (1980:259) obserVed: "The concentration of communication technologies in a relatively few cduntries and transnational organisations has led to virtual monopo��tuations in this field" To upstage this phenm¢6n, Nig�ria' needs 164 to embark on measures aimed at redressing such scenario which to a very large extent, account for the imbalances in the international info rmation
system.
There is the need to teinvigorate and strengthening the Nigerian telecommunications infrastructure. Developing the basic telecommunication infrastructures is not an end in itself While this may be so, it is equally true
that any initiative in. this regard would be fruitless if physical connections of telephone lines remain in their current position where people have so much difficulty in obtaining telephone lines in the country at large. There is therefore the need fo r adequate investments· in the development of rural and urban communications. There is also the need fo r the creation of an enabling environment to speed up infrastructural development of appropriate institutional framework etc. These should be fo llowed with greater commitment and a sense of national pride. Tfnot it would still be the same old story.
In this regard, NITEL must be effective and efficient in order to play its statutory role. As at today, it is the only national carrier in the network upon which all new entrants depend on to link their subscriber bases. In this respect, adequate instruments must be made in order accommodate these upsurges. Equally important is that, connection must not be denied any operator duly licensed by the NCC. Moreover, operators should meet ce1tain obligations, which may include the expansion of their infrastructure into the rural areas. Added to these, power back up systems are necessary. at various locations where our communication equipment are installed. This is in view of the intermittent power �upply across the country. In addition to these, tariffs charged fo r mounting mast by private operators should be drastically reviewed down words. It should also be noted that improved accessibility to the 165 computer internet and world wide net largely depends entirely on the efficiency of our national and international telephone network. The
importance of this sector in enhancing the flow of international information cannot be over emphasized.
There is the need to adopt aggressive research and development policies both in the government and private sectors. To achieve moderate progress in this . ' respect therefore, there is the need for planned and sustained research activities towards the development of new communication technologies. This should be targeted towards developing a strong telematics and informatics industry. This research should be linked to. specific programmes towards the satisfaction of basic information and communication needs such as aggressive expansiOn and development of rural telecommunications among others. Therefore, electronic media owners, electronic supplies, te]ecom owners� ' private · business concerns as well as state and national agencies should be actively involved in the development of such an industry. This can be achieved by transferring technology from the developed nations and also adapting it to local uses and tastes. In this regard, attention should be given to the production of transistors, capacitors, electronic switching, earth stations as well as Communication satellites (Maida, 1996:Ibid). This would to a very large extent, reduce the nations total and sustained dependence on imports fo r virtually all information processing hardware.
Chinweizu (1997) holds that if Nigeria most win the fight the against the , international media onslaught, it must embark on political and propaganda offensives) by galvanizing and mobilizing the black world constituency into active support for it. Nigeria must also win allies among those countries who are also being attacked by the Euro-American media
166 International co-operation and collaboration should be intensified. Bilateral
.. and multi-lateral agreements in the area of telecommunication and mass media should be fu rther encouraged. Effort should be geared towards increased south-south co-operation so as to achieve the collective objectives of redressing the prevailing imbalances and inequalities in the international information system.' Nigeria being one of the leading member nations in the southern hemisphere should canvass for fresh, realistic and implementable policies to give proper focus to the various elements in increasing information and communication capabilities at natioJ!al, regional and global levels.
Equally important is the need to intensifY. efforts towards co-operation with the developed nations and other transnational corporations involved in the I manufacture ofbroa:dcasthardwares. Such co-operation should be in the areas of development of infrastructure, equipment, training and technical assistance among others.
The broadcasting industry, both public and private should fo rmulate and implement coherent policy measures aimed at producing local broadcast materials in order to obviate dependence on external sources over and beyond desirable programme exchange agreements. This can be achieved by ' initiating and supporting activities, which will concretise the new initiatives through fresh and dynamic approaches to programming, message content and networking in our broadcasting media sector. The NBC should also ensure ' I strict compliance with the laid down rules of broadcasting in the country and impose sanctions in case of the violation of such rules.
The private broadcasting media should also be encouraged so as to complement govern�ent broadcast media. This can be achieved by.removing ' I ' all obstacles militating against their operations. For instance, the Federal Ministry of Information should directly liase with the Federal Capital 167 f?evelopment Authority (FCDA) m order to assist all private broadcast
. stations who wish to build their transmission stations in Abuja. Such intervention would ensure the acquisition of land with ease and at lesser cost, which might have been otherwise if the private broadcaster directly liase with the Federal Capital Development Authority (FCDA). This would serve as an incentive, which would definitely encourage private broadcasting in the country, and enhance Nigeria's role in the international system.
Equally important, since the federal government gave NTTEL concession of zero tariff on its imported equipments, private broadcasters should also be encouraged to pay only 0.1% on their imports. This would to a very large extel1t, incentivate them to contribute meaningful especially as it relates to the international broadcasting.
168 REFERENCES
Maida, Wada A. (1996) "New Technology and the Transformation of the Communication Process: Challenges fo r the Nigerian Media in the 21st Century" In The Media and the Twenty- First Century, Ahuja: Nigeria Union ofJournalists. MacBride, Sean et-�(eds.) (1980) Many Voices, One World. (Communication and Society: Today and Tomorrow), Paris: UNESCO. Ofonagoro, Walter (1997) "The Role of the Media in Propagating VISION 2010" Paper Presented at the 10111 VISION 2010 Workshop, Ahuja: Federal Ministry of Information. Zaki, Bello M. (1998) Western Media and Nigeria Development, Kano: Hadiza diwa Press.
169 APPENDIX I
AN ABRIDGED INTERVIEW WITH MR. GODFREY ODU, FORMER TR NTA FOREIGN CORRESPONDENT, HELD ON APRIL 24 ,2002 IN ABUJA �
1-;ladi: . How has it been like, operating in an international information system dominated by world renowned media like, CNN, BBC etc?
Odu: One of the greatest handicaps that is easily identifiable is the disparity in terms oftechnological wherewithal in information dissemination that is available to the media of the west against those of the developing
countries like Nigeria. They are faster in reach. You are covering . assignment with your colleagues from the west who have satellite communication facilities at their disposal, you have reporters who have microwave transmission equipment that can file reports to locations, · while you are: actually struggling to get to the base. Sometimes you spend hours trying to get to the base. You know the communication
system in this country, sometimes you spend hours trying to file a · report to base and you can not, because the telephones are not properly functioning.
The other aspect is that our own system has not conferred the kind of importance that information required compared to the premium that government or even the private sector in the west accord to information. We do not see information here as very vital .to development and . international relations. For example, you are covering United Nations, you have Reuters AF-P, AP, CNN and they are busy filing reports in minutes to their various locations. But you as an African or Nigerian
170
, 'l I ' reporter you have to start shuttling looking fo r out lets, making satellite bookings that l}lay not come through. This is a fT ustrating experience.
The equipment at our disposal fo r news gathering are decades behind those of the west. Yqu have digital editing television where you use miniature equipment and get higher resolution. But we are still carrying the heavy obsolete Cameras, recorders and other very cumbersome equipment like that.
,. Hadi: What ofthe issue of fu nding?
Odu: Funding is pa� of it, like when we were covering the Rwanda, I happen ' to have been bovering the event with reporters from, AF-P BBC, CNN and most of these reporters have tickets to flyfr om that region to any part of world at any short notice. But we the Nigerian group, we were like refugees.: At the end of the day these con·espondents fly back to Nairobi and �leep in big hotels like Sheraton or Hilton in comfort, while we retr�eat with Nigerian contingents and sleep in trenches. As a I matter of fa ct, it does not seem that African media houses take enough ·interest in what is happening even in Africa not to talk of the international ' community. You find that events in Rwanda, Angola, Congo Kinshasa and even Congo Brazzaville are not effectively covered by Afi·ican journalist. Most of what we African consume as information from these crisis area are as reported and as perceived by western pres�. Because most of them see Africa fr om a negative point
I of view, so their reports are usually tainted against Africa, to keep the
'! status quo, t? present to the world the picture that they want the world to see of Africa.
171 So in terms of funding we are under funded. One of the generals, a Ghanaian too� it upon himself to say, "you are about the only African journalist here". The explanation in simple, most of the African media organizations do not have money to send correspondents to locations so
• that they can report from African perspectives.
Hadi: What is the way fo rward?
Odu: There · is theI need fo r a revolutionary approach. The present dispensation is such that Nigeria can not go on the way that we have carried on in the yesteryears. We have to update our equipment to make
a favourable · impact on the international community. We have to adequately fund information, turn our information centres abroad to active not passive ones. They should know what is actually happening in Nigeria. We have to approach information fr om a pragmatic perspective.
Hadi: How would 'you asses Nigeria and the new world information and' communication order NWTCO? I Odu: It is like looking at the UN and the dominance of the five permanent
· members. It is an international global arrangement to perpetually I subjugate they third world. They ensure that you do not get the best I ' technology. The G77 can play a good role by facilitating interactions between third world nations. lf they can do anything together to come any where c�ose to the north that would be fantastic. There ·is the need for collaborative action between members of the 077 and the non- aligned countries.
172 'I I APPENDIX II
AN ABRIDGED INTERVIEW WITH MR. EMMANUEL AGBEGIR,
FORMER HEAD OF THE NIGERIAN INFORMATION SERVICES CENTER, NEW YORK, R0 HELD ON APRIL 23 ,2 002 IN ABUJA
� Hadi: What are the problems associated with servmg m the Nigerian Information Services Centers Abroad?
Agbegir: The basic problem is that of fixation. There is a stereotype about the kind of information that comes out of Africa and Nigeria. They are not easily receptive to received positive image about Nigeria. They are more inclined to report the negative aspects, so that makes one's work a little bit difficult. One has to work extra hard to cultivate a lot of friends within the media in order to penetrate, make one to one contact to achieve your aim.
Sometimes it is deliberate. It is not that they don't hear the positive side, but they just continue to report what they want, and since they .
have the advantage of technology they succeed in using ' satellite �acilities to block anything that comes from you to them, but; one can
' not block whatever comes from them. I Hadi: What of the issue of funding the Nigerian Information Servic� Centers abroad?
Agbegir: Funding actu�lly has been the bane of the information service centers. Funds are the mainstay of fo reign service. You have to pay your bills otherwise you embarrass the country. But this ministry unfqrtunately, has not got 'it right. That makes it dWficult. The fu nds which are supposed to be remitted on six months basis, have not been coming as
at and when due.
173 BffiLIOGRAPHY
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15. Federal Republic ofNideria (1987) National Mass Communication Polidy. Lagos: Federal Ministry of Information and Culture. I 6. Federal Ministry of Information and Culture ( 1996) Nigeria Information ervice Centre, Operation Manual. Lagos: External Publicity Department. 17. Federal Ministry of Information and Culture (1996) Handbook fo r External Publicity Offiders. Lagos: External Publicity Department. 8. Federal Ministry of Information and Culture ( 1994) Handbook on Information I · and Culture. Lkgos: Federal Ministry of Information and Culture. 1'9. Federal Ministry of Communications (2000) National Telecommunications Policy. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Communications. 20. Garba, Joe ( 1987) Diplomatic Soldiering. Ibadan: Spectrum Books ' Limited. I I 21. Golding, Peter (1974) The Mass Media. Essex: Longman. 22. Gusau, Nababa S. (1994) The Mass Media In Nigeria. Kaduna: Multimedia Publishing CoJ 23. Guback, T. and T. Varis (1982) Transnational Communications and Cultural Industries. Pads: UNESCO. 24. Gw·evitch, M. et al (ed.) (1982) Culture, Society and the Media. New York: Methuen and Co. Ltd. 25. Howitt, Denis (1987) Mass Media and Social Problem Oxford: Pengamon Press. 26. Ikoku, Sam. (1995) "Seminar Discussion on Mallam Adamu Ciroma's Paper, "Western Media and the Nigerian Image" ln lsa, L. J. (ed.) Not In Oi.rrCh aracter. Kadurta: Kaduna State Government. 27. Ibrahim, Mohammed (1996) Emerging Trends In Media Development I� Developing Countries: A Nigerian Press Perspective ." In The Media and the Twenty First Century, Abuja: Nigeria Union of Journalists. 28. International Organisation of Journalists ( 1986) New International Information and Communi:Cation Order. Prague: International Organisation'of 1 Journalists. j 29. Lozare, B. W. (1983) "Problems of Conducting Communication Reseatch in Les Developed Countries: The Need fo r Innovation and .. Adaptation�', In Dissanayake, W. and Moh'd. Said, (eds.)
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(l999) The Concept and Practice oflnternational Relations. Abuja: J oyaryss Ventures Ltd. 48. Uche, L. U. (1996) "The Order ofNorth-South Information Dichotomy in Post Cold War Era" In Uche, L. U. (ed.) North-South Information Culture: Trends Tn Global Communications and Research Paradigms. Lagos Longman Plc. . 49. UNESCO ( 1980) Informatics: Vital Factor in Development. Paris: UNESCO. 50. UNESCO (1996) Freedom ofExpression in the Age oflnformation High way. . Paris: UNESCO. _5 1. Zaki, Bello M. ( 1998) WesternMedia and Nigeria Development. Kano: Hadiza Giwa Press. · .JOURNALS, MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPERS i 1. Agber, Kwaghkondo (2002) "Press Freedom and Democracy In Nigeria" In Nigeria Theatre Journal, Vol. 6 No. 1, pp. 101-103. 2. Alimi Taiwo (2001) "VON: Africa's Emerging Voice" In NBC NEWS. Vol. 3, No. 4, P. 16. 3. Alimi, Taiwo (2002) "Professionalism, Ethics and the Role of Foreign Media in Nigeria" In VON AIRWAVES, Vol. 1, No. 1, P 17. 4. 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(2002) "Welcome to the World of Antennas" ·Jn NBC NEWS, Vol. v, No. 2, pp. 20-21. 177 1 J. Voice ofNigeria (2001) "VON Pioneers Digital Broadcasting in Africa" In VON AIRWAVES, Preview Edition, P. 7. 12. 11. Voice of Nigeria (2002) "Digital Radio Mundial (DRM) System-A New Wave in Quality Broadcasting" In VON AIRWAVES, Vol. vi., P. 21. 13. Okocha and Lawai (2002) "GSM Operators Blame Federal Governmenton their woes" in Thisday, Vol. 8, No. 2552, April 18, PP. 1 and 8 14. Yarima, Ismail (2002) "Demystifying Computer in Nigeria" In Thisday Vol. 8, No.2545, April 11, P. 20. ESSAYS, CONFERENCES AND SEMINAR PAPERS. l. Abu, Sayeed (1996) "Statement" at Conference of Ministers of Information of Non Aligned Countries, held in Abuja, · Nigeria, 3rd- 6th Sept. 2. Adegbota, T. (2002) "Towards Unified Regulatory Policy for the Convergence of theiCT Industry in Nigeria" Paper Presented at Information and Communication Infrastructure: Policy, Plan and Strategies Workshop, Under the Auspices of the Federal Ministry of Science and Technology. Abuja, 7th.gth September. 3. COMINAC (1996) "Final Declaration" Fifth Conference of Ministers of Information of Non Aligned Countries, held in Abuja, 3rd_6th Sept. 4. COMTNAC (1996) "The Statute ofthe International Information Centres ofNon Aligned Countries" Fifth Conference of Ministers of Information of Non Aligned Countries, held in Abuja, 3rd_6th Sept. 5. Ghanam, Adid. (1 996) "Speech" at the Conference of Ministers oflnformation of Non Aligned Countries held in Abuja 3rd_6th Sept. 6. Ndukwe, E. C. (2002) "Telecommunications: Challenges fo r Nigeria in the 21st Century" Paper delivered in Ahuja, Nigeria. 7. 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