A Survey and Analysis of the Kenyan Metalworking Industry : Equipment

A SURVEY AND ANALYSIS

O F TH E

KENYAN METALWORKING INDUSTRY :

EQUIPMENT PRODUCTION ENGINEERING AND

MANPOWER

MOHAMED AKRAMI KHAN

A thesis submitted in fulfilment for the Degree of Master of Science (Engineering) in the University of Nairobi

1973

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI LIBRARY

0101399 4 This thesis is my original work and has not "been presented for a degree in any other University.

(M.A. KHAN)

This thesis has been submitted for exa mination with my approval as University supervisor. CONTE NTS PAGE

A Summary of the Contents., 5

PART ONE: EQUIPMENT , CHAPTER I Equipment Census 6

PART TWO: PRODUCTION ENGINEERING . CHAPTER fl Production of Metal and Metalworking Processes - 34

CHAPTER III Production Systems

I. location of Establishments 112 II. Plant Layout and Methods ofProduction -4 27 III. Work: Study ^ 9 IV# Design and Drawing Practice 4 42

CHAPTER IV Production Planning

I. The Market Eactor 151 II. Production Scheduling andProcessing 157 III. Maintenance of Equipment 162

CHAPTER V Quality and Material Control 165

PART THREE: MANPOWER AND WORKING / * CONDITIONS

CHAPTER VI . Manpower and Training 179

CHAPTER VII . Working Conditions arid Industrial Safety 203 PAGE

PART POUR: THE METALWORKING INDUSTRY IK RETROSPECT

^ CHAPTER VIII- Resume and Conclusions

I. A Review: Metalworking Industry 215

II* Advisory Services and Research ' 218

III* Recommendations for Further Work . 219

Appendix. 1. Explanation of Terms 221

2. Collection of Data - 223

3* Main Results of the Survey (Table A) 228

4* Import of Metalworking Machinery 276

5. Net Imports: Raw Materials 277

6. Composition of Local Iron Ores 278

7. Approximate Capital Costs: Stee3. Production 279

8* Cost: Materials Handling 280

9. Import Restrictions 282

10. Production Programme 284

II. Exports: 1967 and 1974 285

12. 'Preferred1 2*567910II.12 Jobs b y Occupational- Categories and Provinces 286

13>- References 287 5

A SUMMARY OF THE COUTKUTS

This study was undertaken with the intention of: (1 ) conducting a survey to compile accurate details of the Kenyan metalworking industry with reference to equipment, elements of production engineering and manpower; and (2 ) analysing the results of this survey hy evaluating and comparing them, quanti tatively and qualitatively, with the established engineering practices, standard methods and national development objectives. The material is presented in four parts Part One : Equipment Part Two : Production Engineering Part Three: Manpower and Working Conditions Part Four: The Metalworking Industry in Retrospect•

The information was obtained from the known metalworking establishments in the main towns of Kenya. Throughout the dissertation, the data is divided in accordance to the size of the firms (See Para. 2, Appendix 1). The main results of the survey appear as Table A in Appendix 3* The appendix also contains certain data which is not original but is cited in the dissertation.

Appropriate details of the present state of the industry are given at the beginning of each chapter, under Section 'A1. Section '3* of each chapter attempts to analyse the data relevant to the topic under question. Simple statistical methods are used to examine the data. Conclusions and recommendations are then given at Section ’C .

CHAPTER I

EQUIPMENT CENSUS

x X x 6

• EQUIPMENT CENSUS

A. THE PRESENT STATE

1,1,1An Equipment Inventory

An inventory of the main metalworking equipment i3 recorded in the following tables:-

Table 1.1,a.; Covers the private sector of ' the metalworking industry and a few quasi government establishments. The latter includes the metalwork shops of the establishments referred to in Table A, under Section II, No. 85 and Section III, Nos. 2, 3, 18 and 28.

Table 1.1.b,: Covers the East African Railways Chief Mechanical Engineer’s Work shops, Nairobi (Table A, III, 4). These workshops have a far greater quantity and variety of equipment than is normally found in other establishments in this country. Its equipment is, therefore, shown separately in this table.

Table 1.1 ,c.: Lists locally-made equipment.

Table 1.1 ,d,: Lists production plants.

B. AN ANALYSIS: EQUIPMENT

1.1.2:- National Equipment Inventory

Several countries organize and regularly conduct equipment censuses on a national scale. Ashburn1 explains how equipment'studies are undertaken in different countries.

*v ♦ QUANTITY OF EQUIPMENT — TYPE‘OF

r AGE ronm a t GRAND y* a EQUIPMENT o TOTAL LESS THA] MORS THAN 10 YEARS AGE UNKNOWN

SINE OF SM. MS. LA. SM. ME. LA. SM. ME. LA SM ME LA ESTABLISHMENT A. KKTAL-CUTTING \ I EQUIPMENT Lathe Machines Centre Lathes H 66 25 55 170 64 8 17 19 77 253 106 436 Bench Lathes 4 4 - 11 12 1 - 2 - 15 18 1 34 Capstan/Turret Lathes ' 2 1 1 4 4 — _ _ 1 6 5 12 Toolroom Lathes - 5 2 2 2 1 - - 1 2 5 4 11 Others 1 1 - 1 - - - - 1 2 - 3 - Vertical Lathes - - - 2 » - - - 2 1 3 | Milling Machines Universal 1 8 1 4 24 15 - 3 1 5 35 17 57 Horizontal - 6 1 1 4 - - - - 1 10 1 12 Vertical - 41 2 — 1 5 — — — — 2 5 7

AN- EQUIPMENT INVENTORY OF KENYA Table 1.1 * a GRAND ME LA SM ME LA Shapers. Planers, SM ME LA SM ME LA SM TOTAL. & Slotters 1---- Shapers 1 20 5 5 43 13 5 - 11 11 63 29 103 Planers - 1 - ■ - 1 4 - 3 - 2 7 9 Slotters - - - - 4 2 — ** 1 — 4 3 7 i Drilling Machines Bench* 7 23 - 11 14 - 22 13 28 40 50 28 118 Pillar/C olvunn 46 6 45 85 31 15 12 8 83 143 45 271 I23 ' Radial 2 3 1 4 14 — 1 3 1 7 20 28 .1 ■ ■ -i Boring Machines Ii i Horizontal/ j Vertical 1 - - 3 5 >- 2 6 5 11 i Grinding & ' ! Buffing Machines i Bench/PedectaA 33 30 2 37 57 21 24 53 1 94 140 24 258 Universal r - V - - 2 - - 1 - 3 4 Surface 4 6 2 3 6 4 3 3 1 10 15 7 32 Tool — 3 2 1 2 2 - -4 1 1 9 5 15 Shaft 4 4 - 4 9 2 - 3 - 8 16 2 26 Others(valve, 40 grinding etc,) 4 3 1 3 10 1 1 16 1 8 29 3 - Buffing______. 2 L x 1 - 5 . 2 17 __ 3 4 _.2s!__4 _ __17___ gable 1 ,1.a» (contd) Sawing Machines SM MS LA ■ SM LA SM ME LA SM HE LA I GRAND ME TOTAL Powered hack-saws ' 10 31 11 ' 8 29 8 3 13 8 21 73 27 121 Circular saws - 15 4 2 3 6 - 3 8 2 21 18 41 Band saws 1 ■ 1 4 1 3 2 2 5 • 2 4 9 8 21 * Broaching Machine;3 \ I M ■i Horizontal • 1 ------1 Die-Sinking «Sc Engraving Machincr* All types* j| - - - 1 1 1 - 2 1 1 3 2 ; 6 Gear-cutting I Machines ] All types* ------Honing Machines Rc-boring type* 12 15 2 2 2 1 2 7 16 24 3 43

B. MACHINES FOR j; MITAL-FORMING I Presses I Hydraulic 4 14 2 4 16 4 3 16 7 11 46 13 70 •

Eccentric 5 ' 39 33 - 42 65 ! 3 19 15 8 100 113 221 Manual* : 1 17 7 7 23 30 j 9 3 18 17 43 55 115 . Forging Presses t Upsetter3(Hot & . 2 52 11 . 11 20 20 3 83 31 117

Others Cold> 5 - - 1 4 - - - - 6 4 10 i — Table 1,1.a. (contd) GRAND Forging Hammers SM MB LA SM ME LA Sl-l ME LA SM j ME LA TOTAL1 Mechanical ------1 2 - i 2 3 i Stearn/Pneumatic - - - 3 3 - 1 2 - 4 5 9

Drop ------1 - ■ - - 1

Small-scale Rolling Mills t

Hot Rolling - 1 ------1 - 1 1 2

Machines for Sheet/ Plate Work

Spinning Lathe3 - 3 - - 10 10 - - - - 13 10 23 Shears, hand operated* 12 10 7 8 13 6 27 25 2 47 48 15 110 Shears, powered 1 3 - 1 - 7 9 - 4 3 2 14 12 28 Folding, hand operated 2 U 5 5 15 9 18 27 3 25 56 17 98 Folding, powered - - 3 2 3 - - - 6 2 3 9 H Bending Rolls, hand- operated* 2 9 5 5 10 9 17 27 1 24 46 15 85 Bending Rolls,powered - 3 3 2 6 9 1 4 - 3 13 12 28 Guillotines, hand- operated* 3 12 2 8 11 4 15 6 2 26 29 8 63 Guillotines,powered - 4 7 - 5 2 - 1 1 - 10 10 20 Nibbling Machines 1 3 2 - - 2 - 2 - 1 5 4 10 Automatic Seaming Machines - 4 — — — — — — — — 4 — 4

Flanging Machines mm . .1 2 1 2 3

' ’ ------1. ' ! Table l.l.a. (contd) C. PLANT FOR METAL- SM ME LA DM ME SM ME LA SM ME LA GRAND LA TOTAL JOINING V Li*6C H 1C rlbgciJL^uAC Welding Sets 96 276 88 41 122 68 29 63 66 166 461 222 849 Oxy-acotylene Welding Sets 18 60 16 8 20 15 18 40 7 ' 44 120 38 202 Gas-shielded V/elding Sets 2 • 6 9 — — - - - . 2 2 • 6 11 19 Submerged-arc Welding Sets 1 2 - - - - — - - 1 2 - 3 Automatic Welding Sets 1 4 3 2 — — - - 3 4 3 10 Resistance Welding Sets 1 17 12 3 3 1 - 1 19 4 21 32 57

D. OTHER EQUIPMENT- Cast iron cupolas 1 - - - - 1 1 20 3 2 20 4 26 Oil fired furnaces - 3 3 - - 2 1 8 4 1 11 S 21 Electric furnaces (for heat treatment) — 4 1 — - - - 3 4 - 7 5 12 Electroplating Plants* 5 _ — - 4 - 3 9 - 8 13 21 Oxy-acetylene Profile cutting* — 5 - - 1 3 - - 3 - 6 6 12 Grit blasting equip ment — — - 2 - - 1 - 2 1 3 Metal spraying Equipment* - ' 2 - - - - 1 1 1 1 3 1 5 Electro-static Spraying Equipment ------1 - - 1 1

KEYs SM a Small ME = Medium LA = Large table a.\.c l . 12

QUANTITY !

LLCS THAN | MORE THAN ; TOTAL EQUIPMENT 10 YBiiRS j 10 YEARS . _ i A. METAL-CUTTING MACHINES Lathe Machines Centre lathes 4 53 57 Bench Lathes 1 1 2 Capstan Lathes \ 3 24 27 Turret Lathes ' - 4 4 Wheel Lathes 2 15 17 Profile/Copy Lathes 1 2 2

Killing Machines Universal - 2 2 Horizontal - 4 4 Vertical 1 4 5' Shapers, Planers, . Slotters Shapers 2 14 16 Planers - 3 3 Slotters 1 2 3 Drilling Machines

Bench* - 3 3 Pillar/Column 1 11 12 Radial 1 20 2t

Boring Machines Vertical - 7 7 ' Horizontal 2 5 7 Others (valve, boring,etc. 1 8 9 Grinding Machines Pedestal ./Bench 1 24 25 Centreless 1 - 1 Surface 2 5 7 Universal 1 6 7 Tool and Cutter - 2 7 9 Valve 2 3 5

EQUIPMENT INVENTORY 0? HAILWAY "WORKSHOPS , NAIROBI Table 1.1»b«, 13

1 ------■ ■■ ■■ Savins Machines • Hack-saws (powered) 1 9 10 Circular/Friction saws 1 1 2 Band saws - 5 5

Threading Machines All types - 5 . 5

Gear-Cutting Machines Katterson Gear cutter 1 1

En^ravinf? Machines All types 1 1

lapping Machines / All types 1 1 —

B. KETAL-FCRKING MACHINES Presses Hydraulic 1 7 8 Eccentric 4 5 9 Manual - 3 3

Forcing Presses . Upsetters (Hot & Cold) 2 2

Spring Buckling & .... •*, Finning Presses - 5 5

Forfrin^ Hammers Mechanical 1 1 S t e am/Pne urn t ic - 6 6 Drop 1 2 3'

Machines for Sheet/Plate Work Shears, hand operated . 1 6 7 Shears, powered 1 6 7 Folding machines (including tube bending) 7 7 Folding machines,powered - - - Bending Rolls, hand operated 1 3 4 Bending Rolls, powered - 2 2 Limshers - 3 3 L ...... - * - --- Table 1.1.b. - contd» 14

c. m e t a l -j o i n i n g pla n t Electric metal-arc welding 11 38- 49 Flash Welding - 1 1

D. FOUNDRY EQUIPMENT Shell Moulding - 5* 5* Moulding Machines - 5 5 Tropenas Converter 1* - 1* Cupola3 - 3* 3* Morgan Tilting Furnace (600 lbs) 2 1 3 Morgan Furnace (250 lbs) - 3* 3* Sand mixing plant - 2 2 Sand drier mills - 2* 2* Corenaker 1 1 Aluminium Furnace - 1 1 Mould drying oven - 1 1 Tyre Furnaces - 2 2 Electric heating pots - 2 .2

Blacksmith Heat in? Furnace Large 4* 4* Small - 7* 7* Others - 2 2

E. OTHER EQUIPMENT Oxy-acetylene Profile cutting 4 4 Metal Spraying - .2 2 ______t------, * Includes locally designed and erected units.

Tattle 1 .1 .b,(contd) J » • **.

..... ' — ■ 1 ■■■ ----- — ■ QUARTITY OF EQUIPMENT BY ESTArsLISHMEHT • EQUIPMENT TOTAL SHALL MEDIUM LARGE SCALE SCALE SCALE

A. KACKIHZS FOR I-ETAL-CUTTIUG l Powered Hack-saws 2 3 5 Threading machines 2 - 2 Grinding machines (Pedestral/Sench) 10 10 . 20 Surface Grinders - 1 - ; 1 Pillar drills 2 2 - "

B. MACHIRES FOR KETAL-FCRHING & FOR SHEET- * METAL WORK

Automatic machine for making springs 2 3 Automatic machine for making channe ls 1 1 Folding, hand- operated 1 4 *• . 5 Bending Rollers, hand operated 2 5 7 Bending rollers, powered 1 . 3 4 Guillotines - 3 - 3 Rod Twisting machines - 2 mm 2 Hydraulic presses 2 8 2 12 * Fly-presses 3 6 - 9 Eccentric presses 3 2 5 i LOCALLY-MADE EQUIPMEKTC Table 1.1,c• T6

QUANTITY 0? PLAINT BY ES?ABLISHI-_jK? , TOTAL PLAKT FOR 1 Si'iAljj MbblUi-i LARGE SCALE SCALE SCALE i Wire Drawing - 3 - 3

Vire Barbed. i - 2

Wire Grill - 2 - 2

Wire Mesh - 3 - 3 Welding Rods - 1 - 1 Rod & Bar Rolling - - 3 3 Cold Extrusion - - 2 2 Die Casting - - 1 1 Containers & cans 1 3 4 Steel Wool - 1 . - 1

Radiator Parts - 1 - 1 Sheet-Metal Pipe _ 1 — 1 Automatic Galvanising — OT 2 2 Automatic manu facture of office pins 1 1 2 Manufacture of Zippers 1 _ 1 Manufacture of bed springs 1 2 1 4 Metal pressings ■ 1 1

SPECIAL PRODUCTION1 PLANTS Table 1.1,d T6

QUANTITY 0? PLAI7E 3Y E ST Ah LIS HMS NT ! TOTAL PLAIH? FOR S;-iAlL I'iijlJiUi'i LARGE SCALE SC aLtj SC/iLij 1

W ire Drawing - 3 - 3 Wire Bartei - i - 2 Wire Grill - 2 - 2 Wire Mesh - 3 - 1 3 Welding Rods - 1 - » Rod & Bar Rolling - - 3 3

Cold Extrusion - - 2 2 Die Casting - - 1 1 Containers & cans IH. 1 3 4 Steel Wool ~ 1 . - 1

Radiator Parts - 1 - 1 Sheet-Metal Pipe 1 1 Automatic Galvanising — 2 2 Automatic manu facture of office pin3 1 1 2 Manufacture of Zippers 1 — 1 Manufacture of bed springs 1 2 1 4 Metal pressings 1 1

SPECIAL PRODUCTION1 PLANTS Table 1.1,d. 17

In the United States of America, "American Machinist'1, a technical publication, has been active in this sphere. It conducted the first census in 1925 with the main aim of providing a measure of the degree of modernisation in the metal industry.

Ashburn^ states that in three countries (CanadaT Great Britain and the United States), equipment studies are undertaken on a regular basis by a publishing company; in three (France, Italy and Japan), censuses are taken by Government Departments; and in three others (Argentina, Brazil and Chile), by a body of the United Nations and agencies of the Governments. Such studies are conducted at intervals varying from 5 to 10 years. 2 In Kenya, "Industrial Production" surveys have been conducted in 1954, 1956, 1957, 1961 and annually since 1965. These surveys are conducted to compile information for the economic planning and development of the country. Their objective, therefore, is different apd they cannot be applied to form a national equipment inventory.

The inventory data collected by the author may be utilised in any of the following ways:-

(a) In making comparisons with other firms, countries, and results of previous, surveys in terms of type of equipment; degree of modernisation; and the deter mination of ratios of machines to workers.

* (b) In conducting market analysis for the local manufacture or sales of equipment and their accessories. V. 18

(c) In the regional and national planning and development by the Government and by other associations or firms. The data can also specify the type of new equipment in demand, and this can help in the organisation of personnel training programmes in the maintenance and operation of such equipment.

The aforementioned surveys are largely conducted by post. For accurate results, especially in a developing country, the method of personal interview is recommended. Such a method is necessary in Kenya, where about 43^ of the metal-working firms are small-sised and are owned mostly by persons having a low educational standard.

1.1.3. Displacement and Replacement

Tables 1.1,a and 1.1.b. give the age groups of individual machines. An analysis of these age groups, give the results shown in Table 1.1.e., for the main types of equipment. Prom these tables the following may be concluded:-

(a) A greater percentage of the metal-working equipment was acquired before 1962. There has been a gradual displacement of such equipment. The displacement has taken place with a change of ownership from larger organisations to smaller ones; and generally with a change in the role of the equipment. For example, a tool room lathe was used by the railways for precision work. On the expiry of its life (i.e. when the degree of wear was such that it could not do precision work), it was bought by a small-scale worker for main tenance and repair work. LESS THAN MORE THAN EQUIPMENT TOTAL 10 YEARS OLD 10 YEARS OLD

METAL-CUTTING EQUIPMENT 35 65 100

METAL-FORMING EQUIPMENT 45 55 100

METAl-JOINING EQUIPMENT 68 32 100

TOTAL 47 53 100

AGE OF MAIN EQUIPMENT* (IN PER CENT) TABLE 1>1 ,e

♦Includes Railways Workshop, Nairobi, 20

For the latter purpose, this machine still has many years of service* However, the replacement of equipment, which is displaced in this way, is not fast enough and this explains why -over 50$ of all the main equipment is over 10* years old. This situation may improve if the upward trend shown by the graph (Appendix 4 ) continues, or if local production of metalworking^is intro duced. ' f' \ (

* The ten year period was chosen arbitrarily. In the surveys mentioned in Paragraph 1.1.1., periods ranging from less than five years to over 20 years were taken. The author came across several items of equipment of well over 20 years old* In any subsequent survey, periods of less than 10 years, more than 10 years; and less than 20 years, more than 20 years old should be included*

(b) In the mechanism for the transfer of technology from a developed to a developing country, 4 Cooper considers the purchase of modern equipment as a direct method of such a transfer. The present technological develop ment of Kenya is largely based on the acqui sition of progressively modern equipment,, With the introduction of such equipment, the technology is developed because more local personnel are trained and there is an inter change of technical information between foreign experts or consultants and the recipient enterprises in Kenya.

The transfer of technology to Kenya has been going on since the early days of its development; and although there is an increase in the import of certain types of metalworking equipment during the last few years (Appendix 4 ), the progress during the last decade has been rather slow, especially with respect to the' basic machine tools. 21

This is clear iron. Table 1.1.a., which shews that except for a few items like automatic sheet-metal seaming machines and gas-shielded welding plants, a large per centage of the equipment incorporates a technology which is more than 10 years old*

This situation is different in the special pro duction plants like rolling mills. Kenya, being a developing country, has the advantage of acquiring the latest technology in this respect without the problem which a developed country has in either modifying or getting rid of obsolescence plant.

1.1.4. Type of Equipment

Fig. 1.1.A. (plotted from data in Table 1.1,f.), shows the relations between the percentages of equip ment and the size of establishments. The 3ize of an establishment is based on the number of workers it employs, i*e. 1 to 10 workers constitutes a small; 11 to 50 a medium; and 51 onwards a large-scale establish ment. Approximate linear relations are obtained, generally with: (1) a positive gradient from the small to middle sized firms and, (2) a negative gradient from the middle to the large sized firms. These relationships may be described by the following equation*

y - c + m x where c = intercept on the y axis .-- m = gradient j 'S'

In the case of centre lathes, for example, the relationship may be described by:-

y = c + 1.5* y = c - 0.52x

Radial drills and capstan/turret lathes (when railway workshops are included) display positive gradients only# ^ PERCENTAGE OF EQUIPMENT RCE O E P NT EN IPM U EQ OF E G A T EN C ER P I .E SI7 F T N E M H S I L B A T S E OF N REL ON TO N IO T LA E R INI E O ESTABLISHMENT.. OF SEE I. 1.1FIG. .A.

PERCENTAGES EQUIPMENT EXCLUDING RAILWAY WORKSHOPS* INCLUDING RAILWAY WORKSHOPS SMALL MEDIUM LARGE TOTAL SMALL MEDIUM LARGE TOTAL Centre Lathe 17.7 58.0 24.3 100 | 14.1 46.5 39.4 100 Cap3tan/Turrets ■8.3 50.0 41.7 100 I 2-5 15.4 82.0 100 Universal Millers 8.8 61.4 29.8 100 ! 59.3 32.2 100 Shapers 10.7 61 .0 28.3 100 j 9.2 53.0 37.8 100 Planers 0.0 ’ 22.3 ! 77.7 100 0.0 16.6 83.4 100 Pillar Brills 30.6 52.8 16.6 100 29.3 50.5 20.2 100 M Radial Drills 3.6. 25.0 71.4 100 2.1 14.3 83.6 100 Inclunatic Hammers 0.0 44.5 55.5 100 0.0 26.7 73.3 100 Drop Hammers 0.0 0.0 100.0 100 0.0 0.0 100.0 100 Rolling Plants 0.0. 20.0 80.0 100 0.0 20.0 80.0 100 Eccentric Presses 3.6 45.2 51.2 100 3.5 43.5 53.0 100 Electric Welding Sets 19.4 54.4 26.2 100 18.5 51.4 30.1 100- > PERCENTAGE OF EQUIPMENT IN #See Paragraph 1.1.1. RELATION TO SIZE OF ESTABLISHMENT TABLE ■ 1 .1 ,f 24

In a paper 5 presented at a symposium on the "Development of Metalworking Industries in Developing Countries", curves as those shown in Fig. 1.1.A. are traced for the Latin American countries* These curves follow straight lines with either positive or negative gradients only. This is due to the fact that a certain type of equipment is distributed in proportion to the size of the establishment* For example, the small sized firms have the largest number of centre lathes; and the quantity of turret and automatic lathes is the 5 highest in the large-sized firms. The paper explains that the stage of development in the use of a particular equipment is indicated by the gradient of its curve.

With the aforesaid comments, an analysis of the trends displayed in Fig. 1.1.A. follows:-

(a) The middle-scale works have the bulk of general engineering equipment like centre lathes, universal milling machines and pillar drills. This situation does not change even if the semi-automatic production equipment like capstan and turret lathes are accounted for, although a straight line curve is obtained if the railway workshops are considered.

(b) A higher percentage of heavy equipment (Radial drills, planers, etc.) is found in the large-scale firms* However, the quantity of such equipment (Table 1.1.a.) is very small This shows the lack of heavy engineering in this country.

(c) A small percentage of equipment cf all nature is employed by the small-scale e stablishment s• (d) A breakdown of the stage of development with reference to a given type of equipment is as follows:- 25

(i) Universal Type (Lathes, Hillers, Welding Sets)

At present, these indicate both positive and negative gradients. These should have a nega tive gradient only, which would be possible if more units were employed by the smaller firms, (ii) Automatic and Heavy Equipment (Capstan Lathes Radial Drills, Presses, etc.)

Some of these equipment show favourable trends with positive gradients. With a pro portional increase in their quantity, the degree of the gradients of their curves should increase.

The present stage of development in Kenya indicates that there is a far greater concentration of equipment in the medium sized firms* For further development, it would be necessary to get rid of the "peaks11 in the curves shown in Fig. 1.1*A. The "peaks" represent the great disparity in the distribution of the quantity of equipment in relation to the size of the establishment. They also represent the disproportionate use of certain, types of equipment. . The "peaks" could be removed by the amalgamation or expansion of the middle sized firms or by the implementation of the recommendations given in sub-paragraph (d) above. On the other hand, there is a healthy trend in the use of eccentric presses. The significance of this becomes obvious when one notes the development in Kenya of the can and container manu facturing industry (which largely employs automatic eccentric presses)* Frequency distribution curves of the two most common types of equipment are plotted in Fig, 1.1.B. from data shown in Tables 1.1.g. and 1.1.h. The distribution shows that there is a greater frequency of one or two items of these equipment and that the frequency of establishments having from 5 to 10 units is in fact loss than 15* 60 r

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF EQUIPMENT

FIG.IJ.B 27

1 2 3 4 5 x - No. f = fx d=x-x fd* of lathes frequency

1 37 37 -2,258 -83.5 2 30 60 -1.258 -37.7 3 21 63 -0.258 -5.4 4 15 60 * 0.742 11.1 5 12 60 1.742 20.9 6 10 60 2.742 27.4 7 4 28 3.742 14.9 8 6 48 4.742 28.4 9 3 27 5.742 17.2 10 1 10 6.742 6.7

TOTALS Sf = 139 2fx=453 ifd = 0

Mean value = x - s fx * f

= 3*258 (Say 3 Lathe Machines) If all the signs in Column 5 are taken as positive, Mean deviation = Total of Column 5

• X f *

= ,2.5? - 2. = 1.82 (Say 2 lathe Machines) 139

* Correct to one place of decimal.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF LATHE MACHINES (FOE ESTABLISHMENTS WITH 1 TO 10 LATHES)

Table 1.1 2 8

f = | x= No. of fx d-x-x fd* ; Welding Sets frequency i

1 56 56 -1.989 • -111.4 i 2 56 112 -0.989 -55*4

3 30 90 0.011 0.3

4 7 28 1.011 7.1

5 10 ‘ 50 2.011 20.1

6 14 84 3.011 42.1

7 8 56 4.011 32.1

8 5 40 5.011 25o1 / .9 2 18 6.011 12.0

10 4 40 7.011 2 8 . 0

TOTALS •Sf=192 5fx=574 ■Efd = 0

Mean value = x = s fx = 574 X f 192

= 2*989 (Say 3 Welding Sets),

Similar to Table 1.1«g.r

Mean deviation - 335*60 ‘ 192 ' . • *

= 1.74 (Say 2 Welding Sets)

* Correct to one place of decimal.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRIC WELDING- SETS

(FOR ESTABLISHMENTS WITH 1 TO 10 SETS)

Table 1.1.h 29

Most firms, therefore, have less than 5 units of these equipment. This indicates the general trend in Kenya of jobbing work rather than production.

1.1.5 Locally-made Equipment

As shown in Table 1.1.C, locally-made equipment was found in only small and medium workshops. In one medium- scale workshop (Table A, II, 65)» nearly half the large- batch production was being carried out by locally-made machinery. Such firms have little capital for invest ments in new machinery. However, as they have a need, they use their ingenuity and workmanship to erect machinery capable of doing reasonable amount of work.

The manufacture of local equipment should be encouraged. In this respect, Paragraph 3.4.2. makes some recommendations.

1.1.6 Production Plants

Production plants (Table 1.1.d.) were mainly found in l^rge-scale firms. This is to be expected since such firms can make large investments for the acquisition, running and maintenance of such plants.

A few small and medium-scale firms have, however, acquired such equipment. 'Some of these firms have been established with the assistance of bodies like the Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation (I.C.D.C.). Such a trend should be confined to certain limits because otherwise it can act as a hinderance to the natural growth of industrial skills. Any attempt to introduce large-batch or mass production in such firms should be done by the use of conventional or semi automatic machines with a labour-intensive production scheme. In this way, industrial skills in the country will keep a balance with the more automatic plants used in seme large-si~ed firms. 30

1.1.7 Machine Tools Per Worker

The paper‘d (see Paragraph 1,1,4) presented by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, discusses the fact that during the initial development stages of a country, low ratios of machine tools per worker are observed. With more industrialisation and larger acquisition of equipment, higher ratios are possible. Higher ratios could also be the result of a sudden unemployment situation in the industry.

Pig. 1,1,C. presents a curve for the local metal working industry. The ratios are based on machine tools per total number of workers employed. This curve may be used for any subsequent studies in the field of industrialisation and employment in the metal industry.

C. CONCLUSIONS AND REC OMILBNDAT IONS

1.1.8 Several countries carry out regular censuses in order to establish their national equipment inventories. For a developing country like Kenya, equipment censuses could give valuable information for development and industrialisation purposes. It is recommended that the statistics division of the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning with the co-operation of bodies like the East African Institution of Engineers, should carry out such censuses with intervals varying from two to five years, *

1.1.9 Over 50fo of the main metal-working equipment in the country is at least ten years old. There is a faster rate of displacement of equipment, generally from larger organizations to smaller ones. The rate of replacement has been rather slow, although in 1969, a substantial increase in the import of metal-working machines was noted. While in the sphere-of production plant, Kenya is acquiring the latest technology, in conventional machine tools, the technology is well over ten years old. in RELATION OF NO. OF METAL CUTTING MACHINES TO SIZE OF FIRM

FIG.I.I.C. 32

Modern technology is being introduced in certain fields like those of metal fabrication, but in order to develop the technology, Kenya should acquire a larger percentage * of modern equipment, especially with regard to the basic metal-working tools.

1. 1.10 The middle-scale firms have the highest percentage of equipment. For further development, it is necessary for larger enterprises (which may also be formed by the expansion or amalgamation of the smaller firms) to acquire and employ a greater percentage of equipment. While progress in the use of eccentric presses is satisfactory, no automatic machining equipment is employed in the industry and also the percentage of semi-automatic machines (like capstan lathes) is found to be lower in the large-scale firms.

The frequency distribution of the two most common types of equipment show that over 50 metal-working establishments have only one or two units of such equipment and that less than five establishments have ten. For a more proportional distribution of equipment, it is recommended that larger firms should acquire more automatic and semi-automatic type of equipment; and the smaller firms should make use of the universal type of machines in order to undertake a large range of jobs.

1.1.11 Necessity forces some small and medium establish ments to employ locally-manufactured machinery* Examples of such machines are pillar drills, he^vy duty pedestal grinders, and eccentric presses. In an effort to encourage local machine tool manufacture, recommendations made in Paragraph 3.4.6. may be enforced. ■ 33

1 .1 .12 Specialist production plants were found in the large-sized establishments* Recently some smaller firms hav^ acquired small automatic production units* This trend should he confined to some limits for otherwise the use of widespread automatic plants could hinder the development of industrial skills* In order to maintain a balance of industrial skills, the smaller firms should be encouraged to use more conventional type of equipment* PART TWO

PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

■xXx 1 \

CHAPTER II

PRODUCTION OF METAL AND METAL

WORKING PROCESSES

----xXx 34

PRODUCTION OF METAL AND METALWORKING PROCESSES A, THE PRESENT STATE

The following tables represent the present state of engineering processes used in the metalworking industry for refining of metal, manufacture, repair work and engineering services*

Table 2.1.a : The Production of Metal and Forming in the Liquid, Hot and Cold State. Table 2.1.b : The Machining Processes Table 2.1.c.: Welding and Joining Methods Table 2.1.d : Heat Treatment Methods Table 2,1.e : Surface Treatment Methods

2.1.1. Historical Retrospect

There is evidence of prehistoric ironworking in parts of Northern Sudan, The National Museum in Nairobi show exhibits of iron products and records that iron vas in use in Nubia (MeroB) from about 650 B.C. Its progress southwards to East Africa was, however, very slow and ironworking was still in a primitive state when the first settlers arrived. There is mention of processes used for making tools whereby pig iron was heated and worked on a stone anvil with an iron hammer, welded without a flux and barnished with stones while it was pegged on a banana log (which substituted for a vice). The un- tempered cutting edge was obtained by rubbing on a stone. Concerning iron making, Du Bois^ states "In certain parts of Kenya and the neighbouring countries the smelting of iron ores by the use of charcoal and the forced draught of air from goat- * i skin bellows has been carried out in rural areas for the production of sponge iron. MAIN APPROX NO. NORMAL RAW OF FIRMS PRODUCTS/SERVICE PROCESS MATERIAL USING THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS ‘ AND PROCESS OUTPUT CAPACITY SM ME LA 1.PRODUCTION Production of iron not undertaken. OF PIG IRON ' - - - - Iron ore is found in several parts of Kenya but is not commercially - exploited. 2.PRODUCTION hematite, Production undertaken, by the rail- .. OP STEEL coke, 1 & scrap wayk foundry in Nairobi. Main equipment: acid-lined tropenas converter, capacity about 750Kgms. See Tables 2.1.a. Main production is of steel castings (1) and ( and a small quantity of alloy steel 5fe £,i'l ingots. These castings are sub jected to chemical and physical tests. 3.PRODUCTION Kenya is endowed with several ores o?““Fo“u- - - - - FERROUS of non-ferrous metals as discussed METALS in Paragraph 2.1.4. Local refining of the netals not undertaken. THE PRODUCTION OF METAL AND FORMING IN THE LIQUID, HOT AND COLE STATE Table 2,1.a >

4.CASTING Coke, SMI HEI LT Cast iron is produced in locally- a) Cast Iron scrap & made cupolas* Dimensions of some small qua of the main cupolas are'given in ntities Table 2.1.a(3). The constituents of lime of the raw materials and those of See Table 2.1.a(3) stone the finished products are based on Pi.g'-e. 5 8 intuition and, with the exception of the railways foundry, chemical and mechanical tests are not employed to establish the sound ness of castings. b)Non- Wrought Wrought or scrap is melted in a Ferrous or scrap. C Ti small crucible which is heated in Metals Aluminium, copper, either a coke or an oil-fired brass & furnace. No control is kept over bronze the constituents of the metal and the finished casting is merely specified as "Aluminium", "Brass", etc. Again the .railway's foundry is an exception to this trend* Examples of their specifications are shown, in Table 2.1.a(4). This foundry employs rotary furnaces having a combined capacity of about £85Xgms -CP*-?* ?-?)______SM [TaT" 1A c) Sand Cast 6 20 5 Cast iron (Para. 4.a. above) is used Wheels; gear Casting iron extensively. The castings are gene- wheels; manhole and rally rough and have poor dimensional covers. non- accuracy. Fine work involving holes, fer- webs, and grooves is not in much pra- rous ctice. Thinnest normal section is net- about 1.Ocm. For accurate work machi- ala ning allowance is left. The process of casting is largely • Crushing rollers; manual. However, the railway's railway brake foundry has two semi-automatic pro- blocks; weighing duction flow-lines. Their production blocks; hydraulic capacity for brake blocks is 8,000 jack cylinders; per week. Weight; 2-2C0Kgms Their equipment consists of auto per item. matic moulding machines, roller con veyors and attachments for pouring .. - of molten metal. --—-..In the non-ferrous metal range, Bushes; bearings; aluminium, copper and its alloys badges. are employed. One firm (Table A, Weight: Up to 11,71) was seen to cast intricate 1CKgs. per item. badges of bronze or brass. ___ (CQHTiHiU}— i

SM ■MS LA

N ^ Pattern Making:- Normally made from local timbers, the common timbers being 'Podo1 and Cedar. Some firms were seen to be using a sample of the item to be manu factured as a pattern. Considera tion to shrinkage allowance is generally not given. Split patterns are not much used and the practice of making baked cores is also limited. With the exception of the rail ways, sound principles of pattern making were not observed. Patterns for making small non- ferrous metql items like badges are made in lead. The pattern is either carved by hand or made in an engraving machine. The work requires great skill and only one or two firms undertake such jobs. (c p h -u h u e I ■ I ■ Mould Making:- Normally made on the floor. The use of moulding boxes is limited. Riverbeds provide the-main source of sand. Sometimes, a mixture of sand and red clay is used. Only one firm (Table A,III,17) was seen to be using laboratory tests to esta- bli3h the soundness of a mould. The normal practice is to make "green" moulds, although some firms reduce the moisture content by lighting a wood fire on the cope. Nails are often used to strengthen the mould. The railway's foundry has a sand reclamation plant. Moulds for the manufacture of fine non- ferrous metal castings are made from, sand ground to powder and mixed with molasses. These moulds are often made in small metal boxes having the dimensions as small as 4cm? each. SM ME LA d) Die Aluminium - 5 - 1. Gravity:- Used for the manu- Small castings Casting & Zinc facture of small items. The dies up to about 5kg. alloys (generally of mild steel) are in weight. made hy a combination of machi ning and fabrication and are in two halves. - - 1 2. Pressure:- Process only found Components for at one firm (Table A,III,1©). The casements. machine used is the pressure or ■* hot chamber type.

• - 1 3. Slush Casting:- Slush Spruts for casting is done manually and is hollow-ware. used by a firm in Mombasa (Table A,111,20). The die is imported. e) Shell Cast iron The railways1 have two machines. Components Moulding and steel 2 one of which is semi-automatic. mainly for the They use sea sand which is pre- railways. processed in a mill and' is mixed with phenol resin for making the shell. Besides railways, only one other firm (Table A,III,26) was found to have equipment for shell mouldir — ------— -— ------^ _ ( C o w t h m u e ) 1

3M ME 1 LA 5. FORGING The process is based on tra Decorative fences; a) Hand Mild steel ditional methods; one black lampstands; furni . For&inc & spring smith was found to be using a ture; gardening steel. 38 . 50 12 bellow for blowing air into the implements; leaf hearth; and the work is often springs. done while squaring on the floor. The use of dies is limited and the practice of forge welding was not observed* Most black smiths also use electric and • gas welding processes. Decorative work is mostly done by smaller firms while larger firms use the process to assist in the forming of thicker plates and bars.

h Hie chemical Pins and bolts. Forging Mild steel 3 6 Only the railway workshops The automatic up (Table A fIII,3 & 4) employ drop set forging and steam hammers. The biggest machine of the capacity of the steam hammer is railways can about 1,000 kgm3. and 6f the drop produce about hammer about 1,500 kgms. 200 pieces per

h0UJ- tCOMTM-mfe) SM | ME ! LA 5. FORGING The process is based on tra Decorative fences; a) Hand Mild steel ditional methods; one black lampstands; furni For^inf: & spring smith was found to be using a ture; gardening steel. 38 50 12 bellow for blowing air into the implements; leaf hearth; and the work is often springs. done while squaring on the floor, The use of dies is limited and the practice of forge welding was not observed. Most black smiths also use electric and gas welding processes. Decorative work is mostly done by smaller firms while larger firms use the process to assist in the forming of thicker plates and bars. t blKechnnical Pins and bolts. For&inf: Mild steel 3 6 Only the railway workshops The automatic up (Table A,III,3 & 4) employ drop set forging and steam hammers. The biggest machine of the capacity of the steam hammer is railways can about 1,000 kgms. and Of the drop produce about hammer about 1 ,500 kgms. 200 pieces per

h0Ur- fCO^T^Ufci SK MS LA b)Mechanical Operations like automatic upset Foivtinsr-cont. forging are also undertaken by ' these workshops.. Other firms generally employ pneumatic hammers. Only one establishment (Table A,' 11,49} employs mechanical hot pressing for the manufacture of certain items.

6.ROLLING Mild steel billets Cold rolling of metal is not undertaken in this country. Hot rolling of steel rods and bars is undertaken by three main mills:- 1 1. The Mill at Kikuyu:- (Table A. 30,OOOKg/Day 111,16). Established around 1957. 7.35czi billets Materials handling mostly manual. can be rolled Five two high mills for non- to 0.62cm dia- reversal rolling. Installed meter rods. horsepower about 800. Oil-fired furnace. 6 . ROLLING SM KE LA C o n td . - - 1

* - 1 1 2. The Mill at Nlritini:- (Table A,III,22). Established 60,OOOKg/Day In 1971 and represents an invest- 8cm^ billets can ment^ of K£ 1 million. The be rolled to bars rolling operation is automatic, of 2-0 to 1.0cm. although subsequent loading of diameters. finished product is manual. Eas two and three high mills for reversible rolling. Installed horsepower of the motors only■ is about 1,500. 3. The Mill at Dandora:- (Table A,III,5)* Similar to 5 0 ,0 0 0 Kg/Eay (2) above. Was under constru ,(Estimated)• ction at the time of visit. Planned total installed horse power about 4,000. In addition to the above, Note:- The rods two establishments were found to and bar3 are pri- be doing small-scale rolling for marily used for the manufacture of items like re-enforcing con- hoes and matchets. Crete structures. ______CtoWTlHHEX- ' SM T'TE LA 7.EXTRUSION lead-based Hot extrusion of metal is not slugs 1 practised*

* Cold or impact extrusion is From 2,800 to carried out by one establish 3 #000 tubes per ment (Table A ,111,29) for the day. manufacture of collapsible tubes* The process is auto matic and employs inter-stage annealing. 8.WIRE 3 1. Wire Drawing:- In Kenya, One firm uses DRAWING* & there are two establishments 6.5 mm and 5*5cm WIRE PRO- engaged in the process of wire diameter wires to DUCTS drawing (Table A,II,63 & 93). reduce their cross- The process is ’'dry" and soap sectional areas powder is used as a lubricant. - by about 15# to Wire drawing machines with 20?S. vertical and horizontal cap stans are employed*. ..Initial annealing of the wire was founc to be carried out by one firm only. Another establishment (Table A,II,26) also uses this process as part of the manu facture of welding rods. ------Ccotizrirtul) L_ 8. Contd. SM i ME 1 LA Bright drawn steel 1 3 - wire

Bright 1 4 drawn steel wire “““ ■— ^ -

2.Manufacture of Wire Springs:- Close-coiled Bed springs are manufactured by springs; conical automatic machines. Two esta- springs (Single blishments (Tabic A,I, 2 and and Double). II, 65) use locally-made machines for this purpose. 3. Manufacture of Hails. One establish- Rivets and Screws:- Larjre ment (Table A,II, quantities of wire nails are 33) has a capacity produced in Kenya. The equip— of 1,800 Kgs. of ment used is the automatic nails per month. nail press. Generally, dies for these presses are initially imported. Subsequent repair of • these dies and manufacture of replacement parts are carried out locally. ' Rivets and screws are manufactured in a similar manner. Kon-ferrous.rivets are not produced and there was no evi dence of the production of .bifurated rivets. Q. Contd. SW ME LA 1 1 4. Other Wire Products:- Paper pins, clips and stable clips are manufactured on automatic machines having production rates of 100 to 150 items per minute. .. ? — Wire nettinrs. - 9. PRESS Tinplate 1 3 1. Manufacture of Can3 and Production rates: WORK Drums:- The press work (Table A,III,29): technology for the manufacture half million open- of cans, tins, containers and ended cans daily. drums is the most advanced and Firm(Table A,II, automated in this country. The 84): 9*000 con- two main firms (Table 'A,III,14 tainers (5 litre) and 24) engaged in this pro- per day. , duction have their own tool rooms and lithographic departments. They also manu ■ facture some press tools and dies. Operations like forming, punching, blanking and piercing are carried out. 9. Contd. SM ME I LA

Tinplate - 1 - .

Aluminium 2 1 & stain less steel sheetings The automatic units incorporate seaming and soldering operations. 2. Manufacture of Crown Corks:- The production is automatic Over 15,000 although final packing is done crown corks per hy hand. The plant incor- hour. porates a lithographic section and also has machines for the insertion of plastic sealing material. 3. Manufacture of Domestic Hollow-ware:- Presses Firm (Table A, ranging from manual fly- 11,97) consumes presses to slow speed 600 metric tons 159,000 Xgs capacity.crank- of aluminium; presses are employed. One 200 metric tons firm (Table A,III,20) employs of stainless pure aluminium sheet and steel; and 100 attains, by a combination metric tons of of pressing and deep- mild steel per drawing processes, a 40^ year. to 43?'» diameter reduction of the blank in three operations. (c o m t a h u e ) — 9- Contd. SM ME LA 1

Tinplate - 7 3 & alumi nium sheetings. No inter-stage annealing is undertaken. Some dies are made locally. Another firm (Table A ,11*97) has five mechanical presses

ranging from 10,OOOKgs to ■ AOO,OOOKgs. This firm manufactures its own dies from cast iron.

, Ordinary grade of lubricating ■ oil is used in the process but several items (especially earth pans) were found to have wrinkles. 4. Manufacture of other items:- ■ In coach and bus body-building, Bus and coach window panels of sheet-metal window panels. are formed on manually-operated presses. The dies (made of mild steel) are pressed home by means of screw clamps. 9.Contd. SM l ICS I LA ------1 i Mild steel - 5 4 ■ Presses are employed in the , plate | manufacture of steel casements. Brackets. Some locally-made piercing presses are also used- Mild steel plate 1 Another firm (Table A,II,58) Hinges; hasp has some hand-operated and and staples* • mechanical machinery for manu facturing pressed items.

10. PLATE & Mild steel, 1 6 4 1. Manufacture of Tanks:- STRUCTURAL stainless Tanks for the storage of Vehicle-mounted WORK steel; and liquids like petroleum, tanks (50,000 aluminium edible oils, milk and beverages litre capacity); plate. are manufactured in Kenya. liquid storage Rolled Tanks for the transportation of tanksf100,000 steel Lars. such materials are also made litre). and mounted to vehicle chassises. The process is largely manual, although use is made of bending rollers* ______| 10. Contd. SM ME LA

Mild steel 1 1 3 plates and rolled bars

■ i The rollers (both powered and manual) are of small or medium size. Aa a result, several sections of plate are shaped by a combination of bending and hammering, and are then fabricated by welding to form a tank. $ome firms use a simple jig to ensure that the required cur vature of the plate is attained. One establishment (Table A, 1X1,9) specialises in the manu facture of stainless steel and aluminium storage tanks. 2. Manufacture of Marine Vessels: The process consists of forming Lighters; tugs; mild steel plates in the workshop ferries. Max. by using presses, bending rollers, deadweight .ton- etc. The sections are then nagefdwt. tons) welded or riveted to a frame- about 150 long work, which is generally fabri tons. cated on g slipway. (COHTAHU.E') -

Note;- The slipway of one firm at Honbasa (Table A,III, 1.7) is in the process of being con verted into a dry dock, which will bo the largest of its kind in the Western Indian Ocean, north of Durban 4 v 5. Structural Work:- Several Erection and firms are engaged in structural fabrication of engineering, although only five steel structures have their own yards and drawing for bridges; office facilities. factories, ware Sections are cut and drilled houses; work in the yard and are then trans shops; towers ported to the site for erection and power either by welding or by means of stations. nuts and bolts. 4. Manufacture of Other Items:— 1. Mechanical These items are largely made Handling Equip from plates, tubes, rolled ment :- sections and pipes which may (Table A,II,24) be used in combination with manufactures each other or individually. lifting jacks & hand-operated hydraulic fork lift trucks. (cot-vCi 1--- i--- 10. Contd, s h l m e LA As mentioned earlier, the Firm (Table A, process is largely manual, and II, 22) manu only a limited use of press and factures overhead shearing machine tools- i3 made* gantry cranes. A greater degree of fabrication rather than forming is employed.; The production, as in the case of items above, is Jobbing or small—batch. 2. Bodies for \T. lorries; ro trailers and wheelbarrows. 3. Tea machinery. 4. Plough frames and other agri* cultural equip ment . 5. Exhaust pipes.

11, SHEET- Tinplate 28 12 1. Tinsmith Practice:- Like Buckets; con METAL WORK forging, tinsmith practice is tainers ; watering based on traditional methods: cans; measuring cans; ( 11 • Contd. SM ME LA

i ' \ t f I ] i i

i *

• :

' ' ■ . • ; Tinplate & - 10 3 aluminium sheetings forking on the ground, use of funnels; troughs; crude tools, and manufacturing water tanks (capa without the aid of drawing. city 10,000 litre Several tinsmith shops were approximately). found to have no facilities for electric power. Such shops use charcoal as a heating medium for soldering. Automatic and semi-automatic .. sheetrmetal work machinery is rarely used. The medium-scale tinsmith uses some power tools and conce- trate on the manufacture of items like water storage tanks. Corrugated sheet-metal is gene rally employed for such items. 2. Manufacture of Vehicle Bodies: Sheet-metal Bus, coach and other vehicle bodies for hodies are manufactured in Kenya. buses & coaches; A frame is fabricated and welded and bodies, for to the chassis* Sheet-metal | vehicles used sections are then shaped by j for cargo hammer and by manually-operated carrying. wheeling machines. 11 , Corrtd. SM ' MS LA

1 -

Aluminium - 2 1 sheetings These sections are then riveted Bodies for mobile to the frame to form the skin. film units have The floor is generally made of also been made in marine ply-wood and covered by Xenya^. sheet-metal. Some firms also manufacture their own seat frames and seat cushions. ‘ 3. Manufacture of Other Items:- .. j Automatic production of sheet- Irrigation water metal pipes for irrigation pipes. purposes is undertaken by one 1 firm (Table A,II,42). The exterior of the pipe is painted and the interior is covered ' i with bitumen. Metal spinning is employed Domestic hollow- by some medium and large- ware.■ 1 scale firms engaged in batch f production. Aluminium is used i but no inter-stage annealing i3 ! carried out during the process* . -Ccort-rmuel____ i SM ' ME LA i 11. Contd. i ; Wooden blanks are used and the ! ■ wooden tool'employed is lubri- i i cated with bees-wax. Only simple j — ----- F shapes are spun. | » r 1 Aircraft skin repair work is j ( l carried out at Embakasi (Table j ( i A,III,2). The sheet-metal shop !. i of this establishment also has • i facilities for the heat treatment j i i i | i of non-ferrous metals* ! 1

KEY:- SM - Small Table 2.1.a ME -.Medium LA - large 56

*— YEAR IRON & STEEL BRASS OR GUR- (M-TON)* METAL (M-TOH)*

1969 1,045 121

1968 1,020 98

1967 1,220 120

1966 1,035 153

Tota3. Value of Casting for 1969:-

Ferrous Castings..K£ 90,218 Hon-ferrous Castings*.K£ 42,595

Total...... K£ 152,813

OUTPUT: RAILWAY FOUNDRY, NAIROBI

* (Metric ton*i) 51

I. TYPE: CARBON ST Eli L CA STINGS

COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES GRADE A GRADE B GRADE C

Maximum Carbon 0.25 0.35 0.45?$ Maximum Silicon 0.60 0.60 0.60?$ o o Maximum Manganese . 1.00 1.00;$ Co o o Maximum Sulphur 0.06 0.06 Maximum Phosphorus 0.06 0.06 0.06$ Minimum Tensile Strength 28.00 32.00 35.00 ton/Sq" Minimum Yield " 14.00 16.00 17.50 ” Minimum Elongation 22.CO 20.00 15. 0 0 " " o o Minimum Angle of Bend 120° VO Ho test i

II. TYPE: "20" CARBON STEEL

COMPOSITION AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES KIN. MAX. DESIRABLE

Carbon 0.15 0.25 ' 0.20$ Silicon 0.06 0.35 0.25$ Manganese 0.06 1.00 0.75-r» i VO o o i o>. Sulphur - - * Phosphorus - - 0.06?$ Max. Tensile Strength 2 5 . 0 0 35.00 30.00 ton/Sq" Elongation 25.00 — 25°/$

EXAKPLES OF STEEL PRODUCED BY THS RAILWAY POUKDRY , NAIROBI

Table 2.1.a,(2) ESTABLISHMENT MAXIMUM DIAMETER MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE* (REFERENCE) (Cm) HEIGHT (m) (METRIC TON)

TABLE A, 111,17 90 7.5 —

TABLE A,III, 30 — - 1.5

TABLE A, II, 71 , 60 4 1 - 1.25

TABLE AV II, 43 90 5.7 2 ■

* Por an 8-hour shift; . including preparation and heating. APPROXIMATE CUPOLA DIMENSIONS

Table 2.1.a.(5) 59 i&i !a — i COMPOS] ,o i

03 COMMON H g hi s ; o NAME HEH <4 o g h M is; H & o P . o Hi M M Hi g M COPPER LEAD | tsl Eh g < PHOSPHORUS 3 HH CO r Cu Pb S n Ai Mn Fe si ! Zn Ni Sb Ph i Tr 87 2 2 9 - - - — [&UNMETA1 ace ji ii - CO - H - - - - {BRONZE i ^ i - iMANGANESE _1 60 0.1 37 0,1 1 — - 1 1 ilBRONZE ! i ii i - — 11 - - - 1 - ilPHOSPHO- j 88 ! IIrous bronze •f T Q :jLEAD ' ! 80 1 9 1 - - - - - IlBRONZE i ...;j ...... PROP STAMP I 58 5 39 - 1- I Jb r a s s j 5.8 - 0.1 90 3.8 0.2 V B I H E m T A L

____i — __!

EXAMPLES OF NON-FERROUS ALLOTS

Table 2.1.a.(4) APPROX NO. MAIN RAW OF FIRMS „ NORMAL PROCESS USING THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS IpRODUCTG/SERVICE MATERIAL PROCESS AND - OUTPUT CAPACITY 1 MACHINING SH ME LA Machining is a widely used pro- Mild steel; PROCESSES cess in Kenya. a l l o y The machines and the cutting s t e e l; tools are imported* Most firm s b ro n z e & have a heavy annual expenditure b ra s s on cutting tools. The cutting flu id is made locally by mixing ordinary grade lubricating o il and w a te r . 47 73 28 1. Lathe Work:- Centre lathe Normal centre turning is a widespread prac lathe work carried tice. Most firm s also attempt out on small and to use the centre lathe fo r medium-sized toolroom and precision turning* machines. There is a lack of toolroom and capstan/turret lathe work in this country. Most turners are highly skilled in their work. 1 5 6 Cutting tools commonly in Normal capstan/ use are of the high speed turret lathe work, steel type. also carried on * sm all and medium- THE MACHINING PROCESSES Table 2.1.b SM ME LA C o n t d .

90 80 27 t

i tI

3 8

i I

7 35 H -sized machines. 2. D rilling and Boring:- Portable d rill machines are used in the vehicle body-building industry* For workshop practice the p illa r Normal d rillin g vertical d rill is the most common. practice with Box column type of d rills and medium sized radial d rills are not much in use. p illa r d rills. Also, the use of d rillin g jigs and fixtures is lim ited. Precision d rillin g with the use of reamers was not observed. l Radial d rillin g is mainly \ undertaken in marine and structural engineering work. Boring is only undertaken for finishing large marine railway and bearings (Table A, III, 17 and 4). 3. M illing:- The nractice of Normal m illing m i l l i n g i s l i m i t e d . One f i r m practice carried (Table A,11,83) attributed out on small and this to the lack of skilled medium sized m anpow er. machines. Pro- The process is generally ducts include used fo r the manufacture of spur,helical & g e a r s . worm gears. ( cowt.) , SM ME LA Corrtd.

90 80 27

35 U -sized machines. 2. D rilling and Borina:- Portable d rill machines are used in the vehicle body-building industry. For workshop practice the p illa r Normal d rillin g vertical d rill is the most common. practice with Box column type of d rills and medium sized radial d rills are not much in use. p illar d rills. Also, the use of d rillin g jigs and fixtures is lim ited. Precision d rillin g with the use of reamers was not observed. \ Radial d rillin g is mainly \ undertaken in marine and stru- \ ctural engineering work. Boring is only undertaken for finishing large marine railway and bearings (Table A, III, 17 and 4). 3. K illin g :- The practice of Normal m illing m illing is lim ited. One firm practice carried (Table A ,II,83) attributed out on small and this to the lack of skilled medium sized m anpow er. machines. Pro- The process is generally ducts include used fo r the manufacture of spur,helical & g e a rs . worm gears, (cowx) t 4. Grinding and Honing:- Bench grinders are used extensively, even for tool and cutter grinding. The use of tool and cutter grinders i s r a r e . Special type of crankshaft Re-grinding grinders and surface grinders of automative are used for grinding crank- engine compo- shafts and engine cylinder blocks, n e n ts . Finns doing this type of work also undertake honing of cylinder walls. The process is done by hand by attaching a honing b it to an electric hand d rill. 5. Shaping;- Crank-type shapers Normal work- are generally, employed, shop practice. 6 , Powered Sawing:- Most firm s employ powered hack-saws. Large fric tio n saws are used by firm s engaged in steel struc tu ra l work; and circular saws fo r cutting aluminium, are being introduced. (cOfATiHUt) SM 1 ME LA 7. Planing and Slotting:- Mainly used for railway and marine engi neering purposes. - 1 8. Broaching:- Only one firm (Table A ,II,49) has a small horizontal hydraulic broaching u n i t . 9. Diosinking and Engraving*:- The process is carried out by Name plates; dies. the use of pantograph die- sinking and engraving machine. e> 10' Polishing*:- E lectric hand grinding and buffing machines are used fo r cleaning welded Joints. Heavy-duty buffing machines are used fo r polishing house hold silve r and hollow-ware.

KEY:- SM - Small ME - Medium LA - Large (size of firm) * The number of firms shewn are those which have special equipment/facilities for the process*

Table 2.1.b 'APPROX NO. MAIN OF FIRMS NORMAL RAW PROCESS USING THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS PRODUCT3 / SERVICE MATERIAL PROCESS AND OUTPUT CAPACITT 1 .WELDING & M ild s t e e l SM M2 LA JOINING and a lim i- 03 89 29 1. E lectric Metal-Arc Welding:- te d am ount The practice of electric metal- The m ajority of o f a llo y arc welding is widespread in the products shown s t e e l and Kenya. Alternating current in Para. 10, c a s t i r o n . (A.C.) sets are generally Table 2.1.a. are used, although direct current fabricated by the ones are also employed by some electric metal-arc firm s. The normal current welding process. O' range is from 70 to 300-amp3. Although welding rods are locally made, large quantities are s till imported. Average monthly consumption of welding rod3 varies from 50 to over 1,000 Kgs. per establishment. M ild s t e e l 33 69 27 2. Oxv-acetylene W elding:- • and n o n - Generally used for welding of Repair work. fe r r o u s non-ferrous metals. Equip- m e ta ls ment also employed fo r cutting. (COUtlHUt) ____ WELDING AND JOINING- I4ETH0D3 Table 2.1.c SM ME LA S ta in le s s - 2 4 s t e e l and a lu m in iu m s h e e tin g s - 1 -

. *■ 1 2 - 3. MIG* and TlS*W elding:- MIG Storage tanks and TIG welding techniques are fo r the food and new to Kenya. beverage indu- s t r i e s . Industrial Plant (Table A, 111,9) is the leading firm in the use of these techniques, for welding of non-ferrous metals and for stainless steels. The in e rt gases used are Argon fo r TIG and carbon-dioxide for MIG. 4. Submerged Arc W elding:- The Building-up of "Gleason” submerged arc welding worn steel corapo- process is used for building up n e n ts . worn crankshafts. Another firm (Table A ,II,14) Production rate employs the process fo r building about 50cms/min. up crawler tractor track rollers and s h o e s . •Metal inert-gas-shielded arc. ** Tungsten inert-gas-shielded a r c . -/cgH m rtuE ), ,, Mild steel

Cast i r o n Mild steel plate and vire . 5. Resistance W elding:- The use Sheet-metal of spot welding is lim ited, Ndume casings; metal Limited ( Table A,111,30) was the furniture; and only firm observed to be using it c a s e m e n ts . fo r sheet-metal work. Large number of flash and resistance butt welding units are employed by firm s manufacturing steel furniture and casements. 6. Metalocking:- Employed fo r Repair work. welding of cracked castings. 7. Automatic W elding:- M ulti- Wire mesh;drums. point automatic spot-welding • machines are used fo r the manu- faeture of wire mesh.' Two firm s (Table A ,III, 9 & 27) were found to have automatic seam welding equipment fo r tanks, • although not in much use. Automatic seam welding is-also used in the manufacture of drums by one firm (Table A,111,24). 2. OTHER SM ME JOINING Tinplate 29 13 METHODS

- 1

Tinplate and alumi nium sheetings

KEY:- SM - Small ME - Medium LA - Large LA Soft soldering process is used by tinsmiths in the manufacture of tin products including down pipes and roofing gutters for buildings. One firm (Table A,I,8 4 ) consumes i about 100 Kgs of soft solder per year. The only commercial use of brazing was observed in the manu facture of bicycle frames (Table A,II,8 6 ); CT\ Ferrous and non-ferrous rivets are mainly used in the manufacture of bus and coach bodies. Both reaction and bifurated rivets are used. The process is manual and the use of pneumatic riveting tools is limited. Rivets are also used in the re pair of aircraft skin (Table A,III 2 ).

Table 2,1,c MAIN APPROX NO. RAW OF FIRMS NORMAL PROCESS USINS THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS PRODUCTS/SERVICE MATERIAL PROCESS AND OUTPUT CAPACITY ■ HEAT SM ME LA TREATMENT 1, Hardening and Tempering:- The common process of hardening is rather crude and is largely based on experience: the Smith's hearth is used as the furnace and the temperature is judged by the eye before dipping the item in cold water. Tempering was found to be even cr CP less understood and its application is limited. Electric furnaces for controlled hardening and tempering are used by firms which make press' tools and dies. 2. Annealing and Normalizing:- There are few examples of annealing and normalizing practice. One firm (Table A,II,63) anneals wire rolls before drawing. (Con-nsUlE^ HEAT TREATMENT METHODS Table 2.1.d

I I Gmail cast Iron housings are generally annealed after welding them. The railway's workshops in Nairobi normalize all their steel castings at temperatures varying between 880°C to 900°C. Stress relieving of welded steel tanks is done by one , establishment (Table A,III,27). It has a stress relieving room (Size 6m x 4m x 4m high) main tained at a temperature of about 500°P. The practice of annealing and normalizing sheet-metal is also rare. The only place where the stress relieving of non-ferrous metals was found to be undertaken is the engineering base of the East African Airways Corporation (Table A,III,2).

TablC- £.1.dL APPROX NO* MAIN NORMAL RAW OF FIRMS PROCESS PRODUCTS/SERVICE MATERIAL USING THE MAIN CHARACTERISTICS PROCESS AND OUTPUT CAPACITY SM I4*!*TJH? JTj AA SURFACE 1. Galvanizing;- Galvanizing Containers; du3t Lead and 1 TREATMENT was a jobbing process. One firm bins. zinc is (Table A,II,15)* for example, employed galvanise items by dipping them for galva into a pit of molten zinc. nizing mild Kenya now has two mass pro- Corrugated iron steel sheets 2 duction galvanizing plants sheets. (Table A,III, 12 and 26) for coating corrugated iron sheets* Ferrous and 4 2 1 2. Electroplating:- There is a Plat ing; cad ium; non-ferrous greater degree of specialisation copperjchrome; metals are in this process than is generally nickel; silver; electro found in other processes: out of dalle;tin; gold; plated the five main private firms having brass* facilities for electroplating, three specialise in the process. Both transformer/rectifier and motor generators are used to • obtain D.C. current. One firm (Table A,IIf28) uses a pressure of 5-volts and an amperage of 15 for general work. SURFACE TREATMENT METHODS Table 2.1 ,e Ferrous and non-ferrous metals are used as metallizing agents. Processes like anodizing are Anodizing; also carried out. The engi- parkerizing. neering base of the East African Airways (Table A,IIIf2) produce work to a high standard^. 3. Grit Blasting:- The grit used For preparing is imported, although locally items like available sand is also used. coffee pulp discs for metalizing. 4. Metallizing:- One firm For building- (Table A,lilt'd metallize up bearings large marine bearings by and coffee feeding molten metal to the pulp discs. bearing surface,- The process is hand-operated and the metal is fed with* the guidance of a d is* * Generally, metal spraying is done with a hand-operated spray gun. CCQH TU4UE1 SM KS LA Ii 5**Painting and Enamelling:- Casements* i 1 4 Paint coatings are applied to i casements and metal furniture l by dipping them in a bath of j paint. i 2 3 Two firms (Table A, 111,14 Casements| and 21) do electrostatic metal furniture spraying and enamel painting and kitchen- on their products. They employ ware. overhead conveyors and electric furnaces for these processes. Another firm (Table A,III,15) uses a manual process for the enamelling of kitchen-ware.

M ---- i ■ ■ I KEY: SM- Snail Table 2.1.e. KS- Medina LA- large

* Painting: o n l y includes firms manufacturing casements. 73

This material has been used to make primitive imple ments and weapons but the craft has practically died out as the re stilt of increased trade with the indu strialised countries which are able to supply tools and other necessities at comparatively low prices”* The National Museum shows exhibits of iron, brass and aluminium ornaments but these are items which were made after the introduction of metal into Kenya by the early traders. The railways introduced organised metalworking techniques to Kenya. In this 2 context, the following report made by a railway authority in 1903 is worth noting:- "The employment of Swahilis, Kikuyu and other natives of Africa in the shops as hammermen, riveters and coolies is a pleasing feature, but I think that the employment of a small number of Africans as apprentices is desirable, so that they may be trained to become artisans and eventually replace the skilled labour now obtained from India. The eventual result would be economy"« The above quotation is an illustration of the beginning of workshop practice in Kenya. The acqui sition of skilled labour from abroad and'the type of training mentioned above formed the foundation on which the present engineering practices are based,

B • AN ANALYSIS; PRODUCTION OF METAL AND METAL WORKING PROCESSES

With the exception of scrap,'raw materials for metalworking are imported by Kenya* As shown in Appendix 5, the quantity of imports of metal shows an increasing trend over the past years* The following analysis discusses the possible methods of local production of metal; and the trends in the application and in the local techno logy of metalworking processes. 74

I. The Production of Metal and Forming in the Linuid Hot and Cold State

2.1.2. Production of Pig Iron u i _ Raw Materials (a) Local Iron Ores

There are several iron ore deposits in the country. 7 The Geological Survey of Kenya lists these ores as "Other Minerals of Economic Importance". Besides other small deposits in South Machakos; in parts of the coastal region; and in the Hyanza Province, the authors of "Minerals of Kenya"^consider the following reserves to have considerable economic potential (Numbers in parentheses refer to the map in Pig. 2,1.A.). Appendix .6...... gives an indication of the composition of some of these ores.

(i*) At Krima Hill (1), South of Mombasa, an estimated 3 to 15 million ton3 of Perric oxide, occurs as Goethite and to a lesser extent as Magnetite. The ore is said to contain from 10 to over 50 percent FezOj*

(ii) At Bukuru (2), ten miles south w'est of Kakamega, a body of pyrite lode to a depth of 88 metres has been found. The lode is estimated to contain 17 million tons of ore. This figure may be exceeded because lateral extensions are likely to be in existence.

(iii) In the Uyoma Peninsular (3)» Titaniferrous Magnetite occurs. ;The amount is not known but samples containing magnetite concentrations of up to 90 percent have been analysed.

(iv) At the Macalder Mine (4) in Nyanza Province, considerable deposits of banded ironstones are known to be in existence. LOCAL IRON ORE DEPOSITS • 76

In addition to the above, a reserve containing millions of tons of massive iron ore was recently discovered near Mariraante (5)* The ore is believed to contain up to 51 percent of iton. However, the high percentage of titanium (from to 1 5/» of titanium oxide, TiC^) makes it uneconomical as a use ful ore for making iron.

From the above summary, it is?clear that there are prospects of iron ore mining in Kenya, but their true economical value can only be known if feasibility studies are carried out and factors like location, availability of fuel, and methods of production are considered, (b) Imported Iron Ores

In the event that the production of iron from local ores proves to be uneconomical or insufficient to meet the demand, the question of importation may be considered.

The nearest foreign reserves to Kenya are in 8 Tanzania. In the deposits around Livingstone Mountains (between the towns of Songea and Njombe, Southern Tanzania), 130 million tons of ore and 200 million tons of coal have been estimated. It is understood that Tanzania is to mine these deposits and smelt the ores, These reserves' are linked to Kenya both by road and rail (the main rail connection is from Morogoro, about 550 kilometres north of Hjombe). An alternate route could be by sea from Bar es Salaam. Tf these ores are offerred to Kenya for import, their economical value should be assessed. Q Another source is Hhodesia. According to Voskuil it has the largest deposit in Africa and totals millions of tons. Coking coal is also available in. Rhodesia. However, the present political situation and the land-locked situation of this source makes it an uneconomical proposition. J

77 *

A similar political situation exists with regard to South Africa, although in this case, a sea route for transport could be established*

The most economical method of transport of ore is considered to be by sea. Alexandersson1^ explains the growth of the ore-carrying ships in the world market. For a 20,000 ton dead-weight motor- ship, Bashforth11 gives the annual fixed charges (i.e. interest and depreciation on capital, insurance, maintenance, repairs, wages, port charges and other overheads)as £ 195,000. He states that this is about 60fo to 705$ of the total cost, the rest being pro portional costs (mostly fuel and lubricants).

Based on the year 1970 when Kenya imported 12 129,693 metric tons of iron and steel , a ship of 20,000 ton dead-weight would hava to make at least 13 trips to transport sufficient ore for local production*. Vest Africa and India may prove suitable sources for sea transportation1 The cost prize of one metric ton of medium grade Indian ore was estimated** to be about KShs 90/= free on board, Mombasa.

Such ore-carrying ships could play a dual-role in the import 'of ores and in the export of commodities like cement which are produced in Kenya.

The importance of road transport, however, should not be overlooked by Kenya. Vhen the Trans-African Highway1*^ (linking Mombasa to Lagos in Nigeria) is completed, the possibility of importing .iron ore from Vest Africa should be considered.

II. Methods of Production (a) Blast Furnace

The fuel for the normal blast furnace method consists of:- (i) Coking Coal:- Coal deposits of commercial valve are not found in Kenya. 78

1 2 (ii) Limestone:-Large deposits of limestone exist in Kenya. *.Assuming that 2 tons of ore give one ton of pig iron; see citation II, page 10. ** Estimated by the Commercial Secretary, High Commission of India. As shown below, the use of imported coal would prove uneconomical* One ton of ore requires nearly one ton of coke for its smelting*. With the year 1970 as a reference, the total amount of iron and steel imported - 259,396 Metric tons* Assuming that this tonnage were to be produced from ore. Tonnage of coke required = 259r396 Metric tons. Cost**of one metric ton of coke = K£ 23. Total cost of coke = K£5»966,10S# This is over 65^ the value of all the iron and

steel imported 12 in 1970# *Refer citation 26, page 12.9* ** Based on the cost used bj East African Railways, largest users of coke, refer to railway's "Standard Price Stock Catalogue", February 1971# (b) Electric Reduction Furnaces

Electric reduction furnaces have shovm. conside rable progress in countries with cheap power gene rated by systems like low pressure natural steam,and water power* The first stage development ^ of the natural steam emissions in the Rift. Valley province of Kenya consists of a possible capacity of 30 MW. Ignoring the smaller hydro schemes, the main source of hydraulic power is the Tana River with a total potential capacity of about 1,CQQMW. As rivers in Kenya are seasonal, this capacity will be adversely affected in a dry season. 79

The 1570-1964 Development Plan^ aims for an additional installed capacity of 5 Ct?.f at Karaburu, Tana River. This scheme with the addition of other thermal units aim for a growth rate of electricity of 9f* of maximum demand and Sfo of average demand* According to the plan, the capacity at the end of 1974, will he 40?° above the projected average demand* On the performance of an electric furnace, it is 11 stated "the furnace can he economically operated at reduced capacity, whereby it can become a consumer of surplus electric power and avoid heavy consumption of power during peak load hours"* This is an important factor and should be conside red in view of the fact that the maximum capacity of t electricity in 1974 would be 40>£ in excess of the average demand, and especially if the project for the use of natural steam for the production of electricity materialises* 11 For economical production, the same source recommends that the price of 1 lb. of coke should equal 1*8 times the cost of 1 Kwh of power. For off peak electrical supply, the cost J of 1 Kwh of power is Kenya cents —/12. For economical use of an ele ctric furnace, the local price of 1 lb. of coke should, therefore, be Kenya cents —/12*6. The price of the coke used by. the railways (see page. DA.) is -/23 cents per pound, which is cents -/1.4 per pound more than the optimum price. 11 Electric furnaces are known to consume between 2,400 to 2,600 Kwh of power per ton of pig iron produced, ^ith an average consumption of 2,500 Kwh at a cost of cents -/12 per Kwh, this works out to be K£15 per ton of pig iron. The pig iron (imported) used by the railways costs between K£26 and K£34 per ton depending on tho quality. Hence, the power- charges for the local production of one ton of pig iron would be as much as 5Qfo of the cost of a ton of imported iron. 80

For economical production, therefore, there is a requirement for the availability of cheaper electric power. • Another advantage of the electric furnace is that the coke. is used merely as a reducing agent. Compared with a blast furnace, there is a 60fi reduction in the consumption of coke. Moreover, this process produces a better quality of product.

The charcoal blast furnace can produce a better grade of iron, especially with regard to the sulphur content which can safely be kept under 0.015^. Some countries like India and Brazil, however, use this process because they lack local supplies of suitable coking coal. Brazil uses Eucalyptus trees for the manufacture of charcoal used in the iron and steel industry with an annual pig iron production of 800,000 . IS tons 1 2 In 1970, Kenya produced 153 thousand stacked cubic metres of charcoal. It is not known if any special trees were used for the production of this charcoal. The main requirement for charcoal suitable for iron making is that it should have a high density. Bengough states that Eucalyptus Saligna (common name Saligna, Gum) is readily available from the plantations of Kenya highlands. He gives a specific weight of 'Z 48 lbs/ft. at 1 2fo moisture ^content. According to 1 8 Rowe , these trees mature in about 10 years. Also, 19 it is known that about 0.107 tons of coal can be produced per nr of wood.

The fuel consumption depends on the grade of the charcoal. As Eucalyptus trees give a good grade of charcoal, consideration should be given to their value as a local blast furnace fuel. 81

However, a charcoal blast furnace is considered to be suitable for ores of a higher grade,

2,1,5. Production of Steel

(a) Electric Arc Furnace 20 The electric arc furnace is better known for the manufacture of high grade steels. However, recent practice indicates that it is also being used for the production of commercial steel in bulk ingot form. The process may be basic or acidic. The former, when used 21 as a single slag , is recommended for making commercial steel. When basic, the hearth is bricked with either magnesite or dolomite. Both of these minerals are in plentiful supplies in Kenya*

The main material for the electric arc furnace is scrap metal* The supply from this source is said to be dependent on the capital investment made twenty to 22 twenty five years ago . This source is, therefore, proportional to the development of the country. 1 2 In 1970, Kenya exported ferrous and non-ferrous scrap metal to the value of K£ 519,000. This was only Q.lfo of the total value of all exports . The quantity of scrap metal can be increased by an improvement in the methods of collection, handling and classification. There is a requirement for the expansion and mechani sation of the scrap metal industry in Kenya. Besides obsolete capital equipment, waste from machining, etc. should be collected from larger workshops, The rail ways' workshopSjfor example, have an annual machine shawings tonnage of about 900 tons.

For a large electric arc furnace the power 21 consumption is about 500 to 550 kwh per ingot ton. Compared with the electric reduction furnace (Para. 2,1,2 (b) ), used for the manufacture of pig iron, the power consumption is nearly five times less. 82

The cost of production depends upon the price of electricity and the facts on electric power given in Para. 11.2.1.2(b) are equally applicable to the electric arc furnace. * In 1971, a report J from one firm (Table A,III, 23) indicated that they were planning to erect an electric furnace for the production of ingots for cold rolling. When commissioned, this furnace should provide valuable information for future development in this field. However, past experience shows (Appendix 7) that the capital cost of the electric furnace is of a low order.

0>) Bessemer Process

/The Bessemer process can be modified as a side- blow process. It is then known as a Tropenas Con verter and is suitable for the manufacture of steel castings. The railways have successfully used this process (Table 2.1.a). Their recommended composition^ for a charge is:-

Selected SteelScrap ...... 240 lbs. Hematite PigIron ...... 160 lbs. Limestone...... 5 lbs. Silicon...... 1 lb. Coke b e d ...... 700 lb3.

The.economy of the above process is probably due to the use of a high percentage of scrap, which is locally available.

The normal Bessemer processes, both basic and acid-lined, require large percentage of pig iron. Such processes, therefore, will not be economical unless there is a production of pig iron in this country. S3

Previously, the railways used the crucible process for the manufacture of a small quantity of high grade steel for making jigs and tools. This process, was successful except that it could not produce sufficient quantities of steel. Such a process could be established in this country for the production of a small quantity of high grade steel.

The capital cost of the open-hearth process is comparatively high (Appendix.7.. Moreover, the raw materials are expensive because the pig iron and scrap metal must have low phosphorus and sulphur contents.

2.1.4* Production of Non-ferrous Metals

Kenya has reserves of some non-ferroUs metals. The following is a brief description of the occurance of two non-ferrous metals of interest to metalworking

(a) Copper^ Pound in parts of Central Province, Eastern Province and in West Pokot. The main production of copper has been from the Macalder-Nyansa mine, South Nyanza. Copper and zinc concentrates were mined in 1951* Cement copper was mined from 1956 to 1966 along with gold and silver. At the present state of development, it is considered that all the known high grade deposits .of copper are exhausted^ In 1961, 2,564 metric 12 ton3 of copper were mined f;but in 1970, this tonnage had dropped to only 79 tons. Kenya, there fore, has to import copper. For this reason, pc Zambia is considered to be an economical source . There is a good road connection between the copper belt in Zambia and Ear es Salaam, which has road, rail and sea connections with Kenya, 84

0>) Lead and Zinc^

Mining was started recently in the Kilifi District for lead and zinc minerals. In 1952, the maximum values obtained during drilling were: lead 11?», copper 6for zinc 9fo, gold 0.3 dead-weight per short ton, silver 30.2 dead-weight per short ton. The smelting of these minerals for the production metal for commercial use is not 26 undertaken. According to one authority , smelting of copper involves a large investment and should only be undertaken if the supply of ores and concentrates are available for a number of years. At present, therefore, the prospects of smelting copper in Kenya are not favourable. Although lead and sine minerals are mined, it is understood that they are not smelted for local commercial use. In comparison with ferrous metals, Kenya relies more on imported non-ferrous metals than ferrous metals,

2.1 ,5. Casting

(a) Sand Casting With an improvement in the standard of casting, several items which are now imported could be manu factured in the country. An investigation was carried out to relate the cost of an imported casting .to a similar one assumed to be manufactured locally. The item considered was a transmission case (sump) used on the 11 Caterpillar” diesel engine which powers the 920 Series of front- ended wheel loader of the same make. The results of the investigation were as follows:- 8 5

Weight of the imported item = 79• 5 Kgrns Material of the imported item = Cast iron* Cost price in Nairobi = KShs 1,755/55 ♦Exact specification not known. For comparison, an establishment (Table A,II,71) was approached. This establishment gave the following quotation for the production of 10 similar transmission cases:- Cost of pattern(labour + material) = KShs 160.00 Cost of cast iron...... = KShs 256.11 Cost of coke...... = KShs 150.00 Cost of labour: Mould making...... = KShs 512.00 Other...... = KShs 148.00

T o t a l ...... = SShsJ^OOS^ll

Therefore cost for one article = KShs 100.61

This is more than 15 times cheaper than the imported article. However, this cost will be more if the over heads are considered and if better material, metallurgi cal and production control is maintained in its pro duction. Even with the addition of those costs, the locally-made articles should be cheaper, especially if made in larger quantities. Quality products, like the one mentioned above, can only be manufactured if careful consideration is given to the following points:- a) Pattern Making Good timber is available, in Kenya for the manu- 27 facture of modern patterns. Wimbush gives details of a large number of Kenya timbers several of which can be used for pattern making. Podo (Podocarpus Gracilior and P. Milanjianus) and pencil cedar (Juniperus Procera) are the main coniferous woods of Kenya. Several firms make patterns out of these woods, possibly because they are easily available for commercial use, * * 8 6

In addition, the following, are example of two timbers which have the prospects to make good patterns:- 1. African Blackwood or Ebony: extremely fine texture and can be easily worked with tools. Used for hand-carving figure s, ornament s. 2. "Mutondo" (Funtunia Latifolia): non- textured, works clearly and without difficulty.

For an improvement in the dimensional accuracy of castings, there is a requirement for a higher degree of skill in the method of pattern making. Pattern making must be recognized as an essential important factor in the production of castings. Firms should provide the correct tools and facilities' to fulfil thi3 function. The use of metal for the production of patterns should only be considered if large-batch production of casting is undertaken. At present, the casting in Kenya is undertaken on the basis of one-off or small- batch. (ii) Mould Making

As with the rest of the process, no standard method is used for the preparation of sand. Large 7 quantities of sand are available in Kenya. For Nairobi, the main source is the rivers between Athi River and Konza; for coast, the Voi River;.and for Western Kenya, the supplies are obtained from the rivers in Maragoli and near Kisii. The main requirements for moulding sand are:- 1 . "Refractoriness^?- For normal sand casting, the sands available provide sufficient refractoriness. 87

O A For shell moulding, the railways*4 found that the refractoriness of the sand was not sufficient. They added from 5^ to 10^ of silica flour to improve this property• 2 8 2. "Bond1 1 De Garmo recommends the addition of clays, such as bentonite, kaolinite or illite to improve the cohesiveness. Several firms were found to be using "red" clay for this purpose. Bentoni- 7 tic clays are available in Kenya and their cohesive effect in moulding sand should be investigated. Some firms use molasses for small moulds (Table 2.1.a. Paragraph 4(c). According to De Garmo, furfural alcohols are used in modern foundry practice to give strength to the mould.

3. "Permeability"s- Some firms were found to be using slaves for obtaining the required grain size, but the TiJtdespread practice seems to ignore this property.

Generally, no modern equipment is used for grading and preparing sand for casting. Also, the testing of sand is generally left to intuition.

(b) Other Methods of Casting

As most castings of good quality are imported, the requirements for the practice of precision invest ment casting and die casting have not been felt in Kenya. The only establishment (Table A, III, 10)>known to be using the pressure die casting machine manu facturers components for casements. Several other items, however can be produced locally and there is a requirement for at least one such foundry in each major industrial centre of the country. The idea of having a specialist foundry to serve a number of establxsh- pq* ments is recommended by Sakharov . However, gravity die casting should continue to provide a certain degree of self-sufficiency to the small-scale works. If such firms improve the dimen sional accuracy of their dies, they can manufacture several items which are not made locally at present. 8 8

2,1,6. Forging

She skill of hand-forging available in the country should be better utilised in the production of more decorative wrought iron items. The smaller firms should be given guidance on the design and marketing problems (Para. 3*4*3. and 4.1*5.) in order to create an interest in this craft. The manufacture of leaf springs for motor vehicles is undertaken by hand-forging. The use of simple spring buckling presses is recommended for this process. Drop-forging is only used by the railways. With the exception of a few components, board hammers may be erected locally by some of the larger firms for the manufacture of drop forgings. ■zp Press forging is recommended for large compo nents since it ensures that the metal is squeezed right through to its core to minimise anisotrophy. One establishment (Table A,II,49) was found to be using this process for small items. Por such items, the production would be more economical with steam hammers. 2.1.7 Rolling The three main rolling mills in Kenya (Table 2.1,a, Para. 6) do hot rolling for the production of rods and bars. • These mills should extend the range of their production by cold drawing of bars and wire. At least one of the rolling mills should intro duce a blooming and slabbing mill. This vail be essential if a start is made for the production of steel in Kenya. With such a mill and subsequent plate and strip rolling, the metalworking industry in Kenya could get the raw material from local resources. Hot rolling is an important process because it forms part of the initial steps for the production of raw material for the metalworking industry. Consideration, therefore, should be given to incx^ease its role in the metal industry of Kenya, 69

The possibilities of hot rolling plate, strip, t structural beams, rails and tubes should be investigated. Even if slabs and blooms are imported, the local production of such items could save valuable foreign exchange.

There is a plan for the manufacture of a few items by cold rolling. An agreement^ has been signed between the Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation of Kenya and the Erollo Group of Italy for a K£ 2,5 million project for the manufacture of galva nised water pipes, tubes, hollow sections, steel plates and sheets by mean3 of cold rolling. The factory will be established in Mombasa and will employ over 350 men* It is understood that construction for the first phase of the project has already started*

2.1,8. Extrusion

The extrusion of hard metals involve large invest-* 31 ments, Pearson describes presses of capacities ranging from 1,000 tons to 20.000 tons for the extru sion of such metals. The normal presses used in Kenya do not exceed 100 tons, A jump to capacities ten times as much for extrusion presses would involve large capital for the production of only a few articles. However, the extrusion of aluminium, magnesium and sine alloys may be considered as they require presses ranging from 500 to 6,000 ton capacity. The use of the right type of lubricant and metallurgical composition no are important. According to De Garmo^ , the cost of extrusion dies is relatively small.

If the mining of lead (Paragraph 2.1.4) proves a commercial success, the use of this metal should be made for the extrusion of lead pipes which have a wide application in Kenya for the distribution of water and in the field of chemical engineering. 90

The Robertson press could be used for this process* The economy of this process should also be considered if lead has to be imported.

Most countries do large-scale extrusion of cable sheathing of electrical conductors. The sheathing of imported conductors should be considered. There is 25 one establishment in Kenya for the manufacture of cables but the processes they use are not known.

2.1.9. Wire Drawing and Wire Products

(a) Wire Drawing:- In wire drawing, the reduction 32 in area is given by:-

r . ' -

Where A 2 = Pinal cross-sectional area A^ = Initial cross-sectional area

For fine wires, the value of is between 15 and 20$ and for coarse, 20 to 45$. In Kenya, one firm (Table 2,1.a. Paragraph 8) is known to be producing fine steel wire.

Wire drawing should follow from the rods produced in a rolling mill (Paragraph 2.1.7)* It should then be passible for a billet (which may be imported) to be rolled and drawn down to wire of various diameters. Such wire is already used for the manufacture of many products but mostly from imported wire.

Ron-ferrous metal wire drawing is not practised in Kenya* This process should be introduced to meet the demand, particularly of electrical conductors* 32 This will involve the "wet11 method of wire drawing. (b) Other Wire Products:- There is an annual require ment for about 5 metric ton3 of nails. It is understood that the present production is sufficient to meet this demand. * With the exception of one firm2** which is known to have the facilities for this process. 91

The finish of the rivets and screws is of a low standard. This is probably due to poor die design and die maintenance. This accounts for the fact that rivets and screws are still imported* The sheet-metal industry uses large quantities of non-ferrous metal rivets. Such rivets are at present imported. There is, therefore, scope for the manufacture of non-ferrous metal rivets* 2.1.10. Press Work

Press work is highly mechanised because it meets a big demand for cans, crown corks and con tainers. This demand is created by the primary industry of Kenya - agriculture* The oil refinery at Mombasa is the second main market for the can and drum technology of Kenya. With the further development of the refinery, this market should also expand* Press work in the vehicle body building industry is largely manual and the standard of the process ia poor. Moderate amount of mechanization was found in the manufacture of domestic hollow-ware and in the production of items like hasp and staples. A better understanding of pressing and deep drawing is essential for firms engaged in this pro cess. Several products made by these processes were ' 32 found to have wrinkles. Alexander differentiates between drawing and pressing. He states that in the latter method, the sheet must be gripped firmly. Some products, therefore, may be improved by investi gating and correcting such points.

2.1*11, Plate and Structural Work In the manufacture of tanks, there is a require ment for the use of better bending and materials handling equipment. Improvised bending rollers are generally used and a large part of the process con sists of bending by hand hammering of plate sections. There are several modern bending presses and rollers^ which could find an application in the Kenya tank building industry. m U

Tanks are generally poorly calibrated. .This is mainly due to the fact that they are not made in accordance to pre-drawn engineering plans. Several plate components for equipment like materials handling devices and tractors can be manu factured in Kenya. It is understood that the East African Agriculture and Forestry Research Organi- 34 zation^T has developed a local tractor. For the production of such a tractor, a high percentage of plate members should be made locally. One establish ment (Table A,11,22) is already engaged in the manu facture of overhead gantry cranes for which the plate and structural work is done in Kenya and only a few items are imported. For large-scale production of such items, there will be a requirement for plate work in the hot state. In this way, thicker plate3 32 could be worked more economically *

The manufacture of small marine craft has shown considerable progress. There is, however, a lack of local design practice (Para. 3*4<>8) and of facilities for materials testing (Para. 5.1 *7).

Structural work for buildings is based on good design practice (Para. 3.4.1.), especially in the large-sized firms. Some smaller firms, however, do not have good facilities for such work. 93

2,1*12 Sheet-Metal Work

(a) Tinsmith Practice The widespread use of this process (Table 2.1.a,, Paragraph II) is mainly due to:- (i) Snail capital investment for tools. Little or no power requirement because several firms use charcoal for heating, (ii) The products made are in demand, (iii) The nature of the work is simple.

There is, however, only a limited amount of decorative work of copper or brass undertaken. This craft should be encouraged and, as in hand-forging (Paragraph 3*4.3.), guidance should be given on design and marketing problems.

(b) Manufacture of Vehicle Bodies

The manufacture of coach, bus and cargo handling bodies represents the largest sheet-metal industry in Kenya, The use of several manually operated hand tools is made, but this technology could imx>rove with the use of more powered tools, especially pneu matic ones.

In addition, there is a requirement for the application of larger sheet-metal panels, Larger panels of different shapes could be obtained by the expansion of press work in this industry. The use of such panels will result in the reduction of the frame members and in the number of rivets used.

The manufacture of sheet-metal pipes is understood to be unsatisfactory. This is possibly because seam welding is done by the oxy-acetylene method, Future expansion in this field should be based on equipment incorporating resistance seam welding' . 9 4

The process of metal spinning is at present used for hatch production. It is however, suitable for snail-scale works and can provide a valuable addition to the crafts. With a suitable material -(generally aluminium), items having many shapes may be spun. The firms using this process for batch production should avoid it and concentrate on deep drawing and pressing for the manufacture of simple domestic hollow- ware. This should prove more economical and should increase their rate of production.

II* The Machining Processes

2,1,13. Application

The machining processes in general and lathe work in particular, have a widespread application in Kenya (Table 2.1.b.). This is mainly due to the fact that a large number of firms are general engineering works. 32 A versatile process like machining, therefore, has the right application for such firms. Another factor is the cheapness and the low cost of its operation. The entrepreneur .can pick from a wide range of sizes and types of machines. Moreover, at present there is a large distribution of second-hand machines (Paragraph 1.1.3) in the industry. These may therefore be obtained cheaply, i

There is very little batch and mass production of items by machining. Hence, the lack of automatic machining equipment in this .country. With the use of more semi-automatic machines and the principles of Group Technology (Paragraph 3*2.2), local production of machined components is possible.

Precision machining, grinding and honing are under taken by some firms but their metrological standards are poor (Paragraph 5*1.4). • V.

Processes like planing and slotting are not in much use. This is mainly due to the lack of heavy engineering in this country. At the present stage of its development, such processes are not considered essential to the metal-working industry.

2.1.14 Operation

While the skill of turners is of a sufficiently high grade, the full utilisation of machining equip ment is generally not made. This is mainly due to the lack of knowledge on' the part of operators on factors like speeds, feeds, type of tool and cutting angles, and the use of cutting fluids. Such factors are generally left to intuition. With a better utilisation of these factors, machining of alloy steels and non-ferrous metals, particularly aluminium could be done to a higher standard.

III. Fabrication and Joining Methods

2.1,15. Electric Metal-Arc Welding

The process of electric metal-arc welding finds a widespread application (Table 2,1.c.). This is mainly for the reason that it has an equal application for both production and repair purposes.

Alternating Current (A.C.) is used for welding mild steel but several firms were also found to-be using A.C* for welding cast iron and thin metallic sheets. For 56 cast iron Chapman^ recommends a Direct Current (D.C.) : power source and the same is reiterated by Houldcroft for welding of thin metal, although other methods are available for welding the latter (Table 2,1.f).

Several firms use the wrong type of welding rods, particularly for cast iron and stainless steel welding. This may be due to the high cost of "Ferroloid" and "Chromoid” welding rods (Table 2.1 '*£). | TYPE AND WELDING ROD/WIRE 1 GAS AVERAGE PROCESS SUITABLE FOR KShs* KEhs* VALUE TYPE PRICE TYPE PRICE, CP CURRENT (PER KG) PER V?

Metal-arc I-Iild steel' 80 amps A.C. "VITEMAX" in the 100 amps 11 following sizes: plates and 140 amps " ; 2,5 m 5/50 beams 120 amps n 5.25 mm 4/40 - — 4.0 mm 4/00 - - 5.0 mm 3/05 - - Cast iron. "Perroloid" 5.25m 82/= - - ■ Stainless Steel ;nChromoid" 3.25mm 45/= - - Aluminium • Alloy i"Alumoid" 3.25mm 100/= — -

Oxy-acetylene Mild steel ■ sheets - 1Ia c ' dia. copper lo coated 4/90 Oxygen =/62 Brazing — l/jg" dia. rod 37/50 Acetylene 13/90 Aluminium sheets - 1/^g11 dia. rod 40/=

TIG- Thin metal DCEN*** Same as for -metal- sheets X amp-2Samp arc - Argon 55/= Plates & 25~5S0amps beams A.C. (with I t — I t 55/= current osci H a t or) | tC O M T lM uO

PARAMETERS FOR LOCAL WELDING BRACTICE MIG Non-ferrous Up fritO "B05TRAKD"~~VIRE sheets up to 250 amp A.C 1.1/.I. in the 0.3675 cas. following sizes: ■"thick 1/^2" <* *****ia. 10/60 Argon 55/- 3/64" dla. 9 / 9 0 c o 2g © 4/60

PAEAKSTNR3 FOR LOCAL WELDING PRACTICE Table 2,1.ft.

* Prices obtained from E.A. Oxygen Co., Nairobi (June 1972), except where otherwise stated. ** Only typical values are shown. *** D.C.„ electrode positive. ^3 © Source: HOULDCRCFF, P.T., Welding Processes, University Press, Cambridge 1967. @© Price fron Carbacid, (1961) limited, Nairobi. i 98

Flash welding is recommended 35' for the fabrication of the following products Flanges, housings, tie bars, buffer ends, metal casements, track rails, beams, bolts.

In Kenya, only metal casements are fabricated by flash welding.

Submerged arc welding is a highly mechanised process and as used by one establishment (Table A,II,14) has useful application in the reclamation of worn tractor undercarriage components. For ferrous and non- ferrous metal plate and sheet welding, the semi automatic processes of TIG- and MIG are recommended, For a high production rate as in the mnnufacture of drums;, resistance seam welding is a suitable method, and is used by one establishment (Table A,III,24)*

Welding is a complex process and has many variables. For a better utilization of this process, comprehensive training is essential for those engaged in its practical use. One training course was organized by the Depart- 37 ment of Mechanical Engineering, University of Nairobi , 38 and the Eutectic Welding Company have held some courses on welding. More courses of this nature should be arranged.

IV, Heat Treatment

2.1.16, Application

In general, the metalworking industry has a low standard in the application of the science of metallurgy. This probably is due to:- (a) Almost complete reliance on imported materials. This results in a reduction of opportunities to undertake processes like heat treatment. (b) A lack of knowledge of the advantages of heat treatment. This is partly due to the small number of engineers employed in the industry (Paragraph 6,1.1,). 9.9

More stress should be laid on the application of heat treatment methods by the local industrial training. The manufacture of cutting tools by the heat treatment of alloy and high carbon steels should be encouraged. This may be done in conjunction with the recommendations made for the production of local steel by the crucible method (Paragraph 2.1.21 (cj.

Certain items like structures and v/elded compo nents should be the subject of inspection before use to ascertain that correct stress-relieving processes are employed in their manufacture.

V . Surface Treatment

2.1.17. Galvanising

With the establishment of two automatic galvanising plants (Table 2.1.e), the import of corrugated sheets has been reduced from 3*066 tons in 1960 to 979 tons in 1970. For the same period, however, the import of tin plate has increased from 7,651 to 17,959 tons. There is, therefore, a requirement for the production of tin plate.

Small-scale galvanising is practised only by one establishment (Table A,XI,13). Firms engaged in production of sheet-metal items could galvanise their products by maintaining small pits containing molten lead and zinc for galvanising purposes,

2.1.18. Electroplating

The amperages for the process practised locally are of a low order (Table 2,1.e). For Chromium, •3/* Chapman*3 recommends 75 to 100 amps, per sq. ft. of area deposited with a voltage of about 6 volts. As electroplating requires specialist knowledge, it is recommended that at least one good electroplating firm should be developed in each major industrial centre of Kenya. V, 100

The use of this process for the reclamation of worn parts is not wide spread and this is a field which could he expanded.

2.1.19. Other Methods of Surface Treatment

The process of metallising by using metal spraying could be extended to cover the reclamation of worn parts, including worn crankshafts. The equipment required is inexpensive and is simple to operate. For the reclamation of crankshafts, the "Gleason” submerged arc welding method is employed by two establishments (Table A,1,61 and XI, 32). This method is expensive and it often distorts the metal. The application of metal spraying should,therefore,be extended to cover a wider field.

A high standard of enamelling, especially for metal furniture, was observed. This standard should be maintained, and a wider range of sheet-metal products should be enamelled to improve the appearance of the final product• * *. 101

C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS I. The Production of Ketal and Forming in the liouid, Hot and Cold State

2.1.20. Production of Pig Iron

(a) There are no establishments in Kenya for the production of pig iron from ores. The occurance of iron minerals is widespread in the country. The depo sits at Mrima Hill, Bukuru, Uyoma Peninsular and Kacalder Mine are considered to have economic potential. Their commercial exploitation should be instigated with a view to local iron production.

(b) Detailed studies should be carried out to find out the economic benefits of making iron from imported ores. Sources in Rhodesia and South Africa are near, but due to the present political situation, these reserves cannot be considered. If the exploitation of the ore deposits in the Livingstone Mountains in Tanzania proves successful, the economical value of importing ores from these deposits should be considered by Kenya. These reserves are linked to Kenya by road and partially by rail. When the Trans-African Highway is completed, the prospects of acquiring iron ores from West Africa by road should also be investigated.

(c) Several countries import ores by sea trans-. port. Special- ore-carrying ships are employed and there is now sufficient experience in this field to obtain accurate costs in the operation and maintenance of such vessels. Feasibility studies should be carried out to ascertain the economy of obtaining iron ores from reserves in India and Vest Africa for local iron production.

(d) If iron ores are obtainable, a suitable method for the production of iron should be selected. With the high cost of coke, the operation of a blast furnace is apparently uneconomical. The electric reduction furnace offers many advantages. • i . 102

With the further development of electric power resources, the erection and operation of such a furnace may be feasible provided coke is available at a price comparable to the cost of electric power. An alternate method for the production of iron is by using the charcoal blast furnace. This method gives a better grade of steel and could prove econo mical for the production of small quantities of iron from local ores. Cheap timbers like Eucalyptus may be used for the production of charcoal.

2.1.21. Production of Steel

(a) With the exception of railways, steel making is not practised in Kenya, and almost all the steel used is imported. The railways foundry operate a 770 Kgm capacity tropenas converter for the production of steel castings and ingots. This converter was manu factured locally and in 1969 had a production output of 2.0JO metric tons. This is only about of the total amount of iron and steel imported in the same year. The steel produced is subjected to chemical and physical tests.

(b) Recent practice indicates that the electric arc furnace can produce steel from scrap as the main raw material. With an improvement on the collection and classification of scrap, this process offers a good opportunity for local steel production. As the Bessemer process relies on large quantities of pig iron, it is not recommended Unless there is production of pig iron in Kenya.

(c) The crucible process has been used by the railways for the manufacture of small quantities of high grade steel. This process is recommended for the small-scale production of steel for jig and tool making. This steel will be cheaper than the open- hearth steel. 103

2.1.22. Production of Non-Ferrous Metals

(a) :'. The mineral welath of Kenya is endowed with several non-ferrous metal mineral deposits. High grade copper deposits are now considered to he exhausted. In the Kilifi district, lead and zinc mining is being carried out. It is not known if there are any plans for the production of commercial metal from these mine rals,

(b) The railways produce a number of non-ferrous alloys like gunmetal and several types of brasses. To attain a certain degree of self-sufficiency, establish ments having furnaces should follow this practice,

2.1.23, Casting

(a) Cast iron is produced from local scrap. Establishments operate cupolas which are made and erected locally. These cupolas are lined with refra ctory bricks which are available in Kenya. The cupolas are small and generally have the capacity to produce about 2 metric tons of cast iron per day. The process for the production of cast iron is crude. Manufacturers normally rely on experience and intuition for the selection of the raw materials and for establishing the soundness of the final product. The majority of the cast iron is used for sand casting*

(b) To improve the quality of cast iron, it is recommended that simple laboratory methods for the determination of constituents like carbon should.be carried out. As most establishments do not have competent personnel or facilities for conducting this type of tests, samples may be sent to other labora tories .like the railways.

(c) Sand casting has the most widespread application* The heaviest castings made by this process are of the order of 300 Kgms, although simple castings of around one ton have been made. 1 0 4 •

The dimensional accuracy, surface finish and the soundness of the finished product is normally poor.

(d) No standard methods are used for the pre paration of suitable patterns, which are generally made with the intention of obtaining surplus material in the finished product for machining. Several timbers are available in Kenya for making better patterns. More skill and the use of the better tools and measuring instruments are required to improve the standard of pattern making.

(e) No advanced techniques are employed for the selection, gx-ading, preparation and use of sand for /'making moulds. Normally, no methods for testing the compaction, permeability and moisture content of moulds are used. Sands, bentonitic clays and molasses are available locally. Investigations should be carried out to establish the correct proportions of these constituents and their use should be encouraged.

(f) The pressure die-casting machine is known to be operated by only one establishment for the production of non-ferrous metal (mostly mine alloys) castings; and shell moulding is undertaken by a couple of establishments. Such casting methods are recommended for a few centrally situated foundries, which may serve a number of firms in each industrial area; while the use of small-scale gravity die-casting should continue to give the smaller establishments a measure of self-sufficiency.

2,1.24. Forging

(a) The skill of hand forging should be maintained and developed by training craftsmen in the art of forging. The small-scale entrepreneurs should be given guidance in design and marketing problems to help them create products which would sell in a wider market.

f, 105

This may be done by the method outlined in Paragraph

• • f ir * * »1 * , 5 *

(b) Mechanical devices like buckling presses and roll-forging machines are rarely used* Small-scale works could improve their production by the use of such machinery. The process of drop-forging is restricted to the railways only, Some of the larger establishments should develop this process and consider the erection of board hammers. At present, there are no applications of press forging, although one establishment is known to be using this process; but its application may become necessary if the pro duction of large-scale forgings is commenced in Kenya. / 2,1.25. Rolling

(a) Hot rolling of billets for the production of rods and bars is undertaken ty three establishments in Eenya. The production of two of these firms is highly mechanized; while the third relies on manual materials handling. In addition, there are only two other establishments which have simple equipment for c rolling.

(b) The products of these rolling mill3 should be subjected to bar and wire drawing. In this way, bright drawn steel could be produced locally from imported billets. Investigations should also be ' carried out to ascertain the economical benefits of rollling imported ingot3 into blooms and slabs, with subsequent plate and strip rolling (hot and cold) for the local production of metallic plates and sheets. This would form an important process for the pro duction of raw material for the whole of the metal working industry. However, if iron and steel pro duction commences in Kenya, the introduction of blooming and slabbing mills should be a logical step. • u 106

2,1,26 Extrusion

(a) Impact extrusion of lead is carried out in Kenya for the production of collapsible tubes. The extrusion of steel and other hard metals is not recommended because it requires heavy equipment with large investments for only a few applications. The extrusion of aluminium and other non-ferrous metals should, however, be considered. (b) With the development of lead mining in Kenya, the possibility of using the Robertson press for the manufacture of lead pipes should be investigated. Consideration should also be given to the process of cable-sheathing of electrical conductors.

2,1 p27 Wire Drawing and Wire Production (a) The "dry11 process of wire drawing is employed by three establishments. The reduction in the cross- sectional area of the drawn wire is kept between 15/5 to 2G?o. Only steel wires are drawn. Further application of this process should be made in the drawing of bar and wire produced from the local rolling mills (Para, 2.1.25(b). To meet the demand for electric conductors, the possibility of drawing non-ferrous metal wires and bars by the "wet" pro cess should be considered. (b) The production of nails is mechanized and the home demand is adequately met. An improvement in the quality and production rates of rivets and screws is essential in order to cut down.their import. The production of non-ferrous rivets should also be introduced. Several other wire products are manu factured and the production of the close-coiled bed springs is one of the few processes in which some establishments employ locally-made automatic machines. 2.1,28 Press Work (a) The application of press work in the manu facture of cans, containers, drums and bottle crown corks represents a highly mechanized process. 1Q7

The daily production capacity of one establishment is half a million open-ended cans* The process meets a large demand created for containers by processed agricultural products; and by oil and petroleum products. The production is carried out by a large number of semi-skilled men operating automatic and semi-automatic machines,

(b) Locally-made hydraulic and mechanical presses are used in the manufacture of bus and other vehicle bodies from sheet-metal. The presses are mainly used for the production of window■■ panels. Their appli cation should be extended to make other panels a3 explained in Paragraph 2.1.12(b).1 Moreover, the design of the presses and dies should be improved.

(c) Three establishments are known to be manu facturing domestic hollow-ware of aluminium and stain less steel. The finish of some of these products should be improved. This may be done by improving the design of the dies and by using the operations of deep drawing and pressing.

2,1,29. Plate and Structural Work

(a) Plate and structural work contributes to many important products and projects in Kenya. Many establish ments, however, use improvised equipment in their.manu facture. The employment of modern techniques in forming, fabrication and in materials handling should be encouraged in the field of plate and structural work.

(b) For the working of plates more press work should be introduced in order to reduce the amount of fabrication. In many cases, this should result in better economy. For thicker plates, hot-working methods may be used. In this way, import substitution of several plate components may be effected. 108

2.1,30. Sheet-Metal Work

(a) The practice of tinsmith is widespread in Kenya. Although based on traditional methods, the products made by tinsmiths have a reasonable demand. As the process requires small investment and little or no power is required (several tinsmiths only use - i charcoal for heating), it is suitable for rural areas. The process should be extended to include decorative work, especially in copper and brass.

(b) The main use of sheet-metal is in the building of coach, bus and other cargo-carrying bodies for vehicles. Joining is primarily done by riveting but only a few firms use pneumatic tools for this purpose. Also, the use of press work is limited (I5aragraph 2.1.28(b). This should be extended to manufacture more sheet-metal panels with different sizes and shapes.

(c) Metal spinning is used as part of small and large-batch production of domestic hollow-ware of aluminium. For such production, pressing and deep drawing methods are more suitable. Metal spinning is an inexpensive process and can form part of the crafts for small-scale works.

II. The, Machining Process es

(a) The common machining processes consist of lathe work; drilling and boring; milling; grinding and honing; shaping; powered sawing; die-sinking and engraving; polishing; and to a lesser extent, planing; slotting and broaching. These processes have a wide spread application, mainly because of their cheapness and versatility. The practice of machining, however, is barely up to the normal workshop standard; there is very little small-batch production of machined components and no large-batch or mass production. 109

Hence, machining is mainly done with the aid of conventional equipment. At the present stage of its development, metalworking in Kenya does not* have a great need for processes like planing and slotting.

(b) It was observed that the standard of metrology in machining is generally poor (Paragraph 5*1.3)* Moreover, the application of these processes consists of routine work and generally no attempt is made to fully utilise a machine in terms of speeds, feed3 and type of cutting tools* Hence, the lack of machining of some alloy steels and non-ferrous metals. This observation becomes more significant when one considers that several milling machines are known to be out of operation for this reason. Training of operators in this respect is, therefore, an essential requirement.

III. Fabrication and Joining Methods

(a) The electric metal-arc welding process is the most common method for fabrication in the metalworking industry of Kenya* It-is used both for repair and production purposes* The process utilises a large quantity of welding rods* In some cases it was observed that parameters like type and value of current and type of welding rods with respect to a given material are incorrectly used. This calls for more industrial training in the field of Yielding*

(b) Oxy-acetylene welding is the next most common method of joining metals* Its principal application is in the welding of thin metals and in repair work* This type of welding is known to be suitable for alloy steels and its use in this repsect should be investi gated in the local industry. • 110

(c) Recently, gas-shielded welding methods like TIG- and MIG have been introduced to the local metal working industry. At present, these processes are practised by only a few establishments, one of which fabricates stainless steel and aluminium tanks. Carbon dioxide has been successfully used with the MIG process as a shielding agent; and as this gas is produced locally (from natural, emissions in the Rift Valley), it is in plentiful supply. TIG, with Argon as the shielding gas, is recommended for thin sheets, but it is more expensive than the MIG process. However, both of these processes are semi-automatic and should find more application in production work. / IV. ^Heat Treatment

(a) The practice of heat treatment is not very common in the local metalworking industry. This is partly due to the fact that components which arc normally heat-treated (tools, jigs, and dies) a^e largely imported; and partly because there is a lack of knowledge of this process. With the increase in production engineering, a few establishments have now began to manufacture and heat treat their own jigs and dies. In several of these establishments, however, the practice is based on intuition. w There is only one establishment with facilities of stress-relieving of large welded sections. Also, the practice of heat treatment of non-ferrous metals is rare. It is essential that certain items like welded gas tanks should undergo heat treatment before being approved for use,

(c) There is some application of resistance and flash welding. Several other items could be produced with the aid of flash welding. The main other joining methods consist of riveting and soldering, both of which are used in the sheet-metal practice.* No hot-riyeting was observed. 111

V. Surface Treatment

(a) Automatic production of galvanising metal sheets is undertaken in Kenya. This process has helped in cutting down the import of galvanized sheets but at the seme time, the import of tinplate has increased. The process of metal coating should, therefore, be extended to the production of tinplate* Y/hilst the mass production of galvanising sheets has increased, small-scale methods of metal coating are rare. Small- scale galvanizing should be practised by firms engaged in the production of sheet-metal articles.

f (b) Electroplating is a specialised process which is undertaken by a few firms. Apparently, the main application of the process is for re-electroplating household silverware. Its use should cover the re clamation of worn machine components. Also, there is a requirement for increasing the normal amperages used. Other methods of surface treatment consist of metal spraying and enamelling. The application of both of these processes should be increased to cover a wider range of engineering services and metal products. C H A P T E R III

PRODUCTION SYSTEMS I LOCATION OF ESTABLISHMENTS

II PLANT LAYOUT & METHODS OF PRODUCTION

III WORK STUDY

III DESIGN & DRAWING PRACTICE U2

I. LOCATION OF ESTABLISHMENTS

A. THE PRESENT STATE

- The following data represents the present state of the location of metalworking establishments in Kenya:-

Fig. 3.1.A. - Geographical Distribution of Establishments

Table 3.1.a. - Location of Establishments and their Size

Table 3.1.b. - Geographical Distribution of Labour

Fig. 3.1.C. - Geographical Distribution of Skills

B • AN ANALYSIS: LOCATION OE ESTABLISHMENTS

3* 1 °1, Development

Development started in Kenya with the building of the railways system early this century, Hill^ states that Vhitehouse, the first chief engineer of the rail ways, bought 372 acres of land at Kilindini iri early 1896 to establish the first railways base and, conceivably the first engineering workshop in Kenya, On 30th May, 1899# the raiJ.s reached Nairobi where, subsequently, workshops and living quarters were established, In 1903# an inspector of railways^, described the locomotive shops in Nairobi as ’’very completely equipped". The contribution of the railways to the develop ment of industrial centres like Nairobi is evident from 2 the following statement made in 1948:- "Mairobi started as a railway town and to this day the Kenya and Uganda Railway is the largest under taking in the country and is still adding to its size. It is natural that the integration of so important a concern into the expanding town is a matter of importance". 35 40

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF FIRMS

FIG . 3.1.A • £. m

ESTABLISHMENTS CENTKE SMALL MEDIUM LARGE TOTAL

Nairobi 71 82 16 169 j Mombasa 20 15 11 46 Kisumu 8 7 1 16

Nakuru 3 2 - 5

Eldoret 1 4 - 5 Kitale 2 2 - 4 Thika 2 - 1 3 Kaivasha 1 - - 1

- Gilgil - I > 1 Grand 108 112 } 30 Total 250

LOCATION OF ESTABLISHMENTS AND THEIR SIZE Table 1-15

PERCENT METALWORKING NO. OF * * EMPLOYED FIRMS TOTAL METAL* CENTRE WORKERS IN METAL WORKERS EMPLOYED NUMBER PER INDUSTRY FIRM TO TOTAL EMPLOYED

Nairobi 5,302 169 32 28,984 18.4 t

| Mombasa 1,661 j 46 37 11,333 14.6 E Kisumu 282 16 18 2,099 I 13.5 I ! | Nakuru 25 5 5 2,877 0.87 j

! Eldoret 44 5 9 2,665 1.6 l / t ( / ; 1 j Kitale 54 4 14 428 12.6 f j Thika 263 3 90 2,834 9.4

Naivasha 5 1 3 556 0.54

Gilgil 65 1 65 112 59.0

GEOGRAPHIC AL,DISTRIBUTION OF LABOUR . Iable 3.1.b. * Excludes foremen and technicians. Humber of unskilled workers is estimated* Includes private and public sectors.** ** Total employed in the manufacturing industry, 1967 (including non-metal industry;; Source: "Employment and'Earnings", 1963-1967* Ministry of finance and Economic Planning, November 1971, Page 20* 11.6

The trend of the location of metalworking establish ments in relation to the size of tovms is presented in Table 3*1*c.y from which a linear relation is apparent with a heavy concentration in the two main centres of Nairobi and Mombasa. In order to evaluate this trend the method of least squares may be used:- Assuming a linear trend (i.e. Y = a + bx)„ the two equations for this method are, S(Y) = Na + b (X) ...... (1) 2.(XY) = a (X) + b (X2 ) .... (2)

Where X and Y are the values under consideration a, b constants and N, the number of times the above values are considered (for Table 3.1.C., N = 9) •

Evaluating the above equations (1 ) and (2) from the values in Table 3*1.c.,

250 » 9a + 176b ...... (3) 19336 = 176a + 12556b...... (4)

From these equations ( 3 and 4), a = -3c4 b = 1.6 The equation of the linear relationship is, therefore, as follows:- Y = -3.4 + 1 «6X...... (5) Equation (5) is plotted in Fig. 3*1•&«» from which it becomes clear that there is a concentration of establishments in a couple of industrial centres and ' that the rest of the main towns in Kenya only have a few firms each. The trend indicates that towns of population smaller than Kitale (Population 11,573) may not have any metalworking establishment, although Gilgil and Naivasha were found to have one each. The former presents a unique example of a large-scale firm (Table A,III,30) which has been successfully developed in a rural area. 1.17

POPU NO. OF NAME . TOTAL LATION ESTABLI OF POPU (NAIROBI SHMENTS TOWN LATION* AS 100**; X Y XY X 2

Gllgil 5000 1 i 1 1 / j Naivasha 6920 1 1 1 1 I

Kitale 11573 2 4 8 4

Eldoret 18196 4 5 20 16 j Thika 18587 4 3 j 12 16

Kisumu 32431 6 16 j 96 36 i Nakuru !47151 9 5 45 81 I

Mom'faaoa ' 247073 49 46 2303 2401 I i Nairobi 509286 100 169 1 6900 10000

£x=176 j-z_Y=250 ,-XYr,19386 |/:X2=12556

TREND OF NUMBER OF ESTABLISHMENTS IN RELATION * TO SIZE OF TOWNS

(Tatlo 3 .1 .c.) * tin w-miii iiiB^rai m M f t r

* Population census, 1969 ** Rounded off to first significant numbers. SIZE OF TOWNS -* PPPULftTtOH. VIM ROW ftS IPO) FIG. 3i.B. .1-19

5.1.2* Geographical Inertia

A description of geographical inertia is given by Estall^ who states "For various reasons - a raw material supply, a power supply, a nodal location for existing transport services and so on - an area may be cone an important centre of industrial production"* In Kenya, the distribution of metalworking industry is due to the development, brought about by geographical inertia, of certain centres. As stated earlier, Nairobi started as a railway town*and developed to become a centre for transport and Government, admini stration. Nakuru, for example, developed because of the surrounding farming areas; and 'workshops were establi shed there to help repair farm machinery and to manu facture items of use on farms. Once established, such centres benefited from further progress. This is made clear in the following paragraphs (a) Supply of Materials Except for scrap metal, raw material for the metalworking industry is imported. Dealers have their markets in the main industrial centres and, contribute

to the industrial concentration of such centres.

(b) The Market A certain industrial centre may not have a market for a given product. However, due to the re sources of such a centre, it may create a market for that product. Such a market is known as a derived a market . Certain centres in Kenya have a number of derived markets. An example is the manufacture of oil cans in. Nairobi for the oil industry in Mombasa. The former has derived a market for the manufacture of oil cans. 120

However, the market does have some influence in the distribution of firms as shown by the manufacture of marine craft at the coast and the production of con tainers for processed fruit at Thika.

(c) Supply of Water As with other systems, the industrial centres have benefited from larger supplies of water, Dixon states that in Nairobi the water supply was 150,000 gallons per day in 1907 and he estimates that in 1980 it will be well over 10 million gallons per day. In contrast to this, only 15?S of the rural areas get piped water,

(d) Availability of Power

// With the development of industrial, centres, there is a greater requirement for power resources. This is^. therefore, another factor for the geographical inertia of such centres. According to the figures given by Bradley^, Nairobi and Western Kenya has an installed capacity of electricity of 63 MW and an additional standby and peak value of 27MW; whereas Nanyuki, Kitalo, Meru, Homa Bay and Lamu only have a capacity of 4.2MW. Other sources-of power like petro leum products are also available in the main centres.

(e) Availability of Labour

The trend in the availability of labour (Table 3.1*b. and Fig, 3*1 *B.) is also similar to that which effects other factors like power and so on. In this instance, however, there are one or two towns (like Gilgil) where the percentage of metal workers is much higher. This is discussed further in Paragraph 3.1.3(a).

(f) Mutual Benefits An outcome of a developing centre is the mutual dependence and benefits which firms have amongst each other. For example, in Nairobi, several firms depend on the East African Foundry Works (Table A ,11,23) for their casting requirements. 121

This results in firms clinging together.

3»1.3. Dispersion of Industry

The previous paragraphs have outlined several factors which contributed to the development of several economic nuclei in Kenya- All these factors can be attributed to the geographical inertia of such centres. Although such centres have several advantages, their further development poses a threat to the prosperity of other areas in Kenya* The requirements of the developed areas in terms of factors like the projected growth of power and water supply must be met but a simultaneous effort must be made for a dispersal of ( the industry to other areas- This will decrease the population and congestion in the main centres and, at the same time, provide the rural areas with the benefits of industrialisation. In the strategy of industriali sation, the Development Plan^ (1970-1974), stresses the importance of the dispersal of industry. In line Q with this strategy several projects have been started but_ mostly with a bias to agriculture.

This is logical since agriculture is the primary industry of Kenya. The development of agricultural industry can create a local demand for metal products like water storage tanks and charcoal kilns. Such a demand should be met by the rural industry. Dandekar^ explains how the traditional industry and the small- scale industry are organized in India for the self- sufficiency of village communities. Por such projects, he mentions, "It was obvious that the village industries could not be preserved or promoted without a national policy to protect them”. Detailed planning by the Government in such matters, therefore, is essential. A strategy suggested by Staley10 in respect of such industry could prove useful in Kenya. Briefly, he states that certain urban points should be developed. T 22

Such points should then have linkages downwards to villages and upwards to major industrial centres. Some problems associated with the development of urban points in Kenya are discussed in the following paragraphs.

(a) Availability of Labour

(i) Supply of labour:- As stated earlier, this is normally proportional to the development of the area (Table 3«1.b). However, the establish- . ment of a big workshop near Gilgil (Table A,III,50) has shown that in a reasonable period of time, a large number of workers can be trained to do skill ful jobs (Pig. 3.1.C), In due course of time, the supply of such workers increased and at the tine of this survey, they represented 59f° of those employed in total manufacturing (i.e. including non-metal manufacturing) at Gilgil.

(ii) C oat of labour:- According to the Kenya Engineering Workers Union (Nairobi Head quarters: City Mansion, Tom Mboya Street), the cost of labour in the main industrial centres is about the same, However, the income from rural traditional activities in Kenya is about 1/7 to 1/Sth the income derived: by those in the modern sector"* ^. The establishment of industry in such areas could offer a better wage structure and act as a stimulus to the employment of workers.

(iii) Availability of Skills:- Fig,3.1.C shows that in Thika, a large number of machine operators have.been trained. It is easier to introduce this class of skill to new development ardas than to train workers to a higher degree of skill. However, automation requires a stable and large market which may not be available in the rural areas, although in Thika the market for metal containers (see Para.3.1.2(b) is created by the agricultural industry. GILQL

NAIVASHA

THIKA

KITALE

ELDORET

NAKURU

KISUMU

MOMBASA

NAIROBI

tu ^

DISTRIBUTION OF SKILLS

FIG. 3.1C. 124

As the traditional skills in metalworking were not developed, the skills available in a parti cular area are the direct result of the establish ment of the industry in that area. With more industrialisation, it is conceivable that parti cular skills will develop in certain areas. At present, however, the distribution of general metalworking skills is in relation to the develop ment of a given area. 7 The Development Plan 1970-1974 mentions about the introduction of a training programme based on the concept of Village Polytechnics. Such a pro gramme may help in extending the traditional rural skills to the basic metalworking principles.

(b) Availability of Power g According to Bradley , wind and solar power in Kenya do not have sufficient energy for most industrial purposes. However, his suggestion for the use of dual fuel engines which may be a*un on locally-grown and processed fuel is worthy of consideration. The use of engines run on gas produced from the treatment of sewage should also be considered. Such 1 9 a plant has proved successful in New Zealand . At their Whangarei plantt 45,460,000 litres of sewage (wet weather capacity) is treated for the production of 764m of gas per day. V/ith two engines, about ' 27,500KWh of power is generated per month. This sewage plant is for a population equivalent to 25,000 people. With the installation of modern sewage systems, a number of larger towns in Kenya could benefit from such schemes. Such towns may form part of the potential urban points as referred to in Para. 5*1*3*

With the present situation of having raw materials in the main industrial centres, village workshops could incur large transport costs. With the "development of potential urban points, raw material could be made available at such points at controlled prices. >25

In this way, the village workshops will have the benefit of obtaining raw material from a near-by source. As mentioned earlier, the finished products should primarily fulfil the local demand. ?or out side markets, the goods should be handled by other agencies, preferably assisted by the Government.

C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5 * l-»-4 > The establishment of the railway system in East Africa set the original pattern for the concentration of industry in certain centres. The momentum of the geographical inertia of these centres increased with their further development. As a result of this, over 90f<> of the firms are concentrated in the three main centres of Nairobi, Kombasa and Kisumu, There is a linear trend between the relationship of the number of establishments to the size of towns, but the disparity in the number of firms located in the two main industrial towns (Nairobi and Iiombasa) and the rest of the towns in Kenya, is of a high degree. The general trend shows that towns with a population less than about 11,500 people may not have a single metal working establishment.

In some cases, the market has helped in the distribution of the industry* but some highly developed centres like Nairobi have created a limited amount of their own markets. Other factors from which such centres have benefited are the availability of power, water and labour, 5.1.6. Several national plans are in hand for the dis persal of industry to the rural areas. Resources like the supply of water and power should be* developed in such areas. 126

The possibility of using power produced from thermal units run on locally-grown and processed fuel and on gas produced from sewage waste should be investigated. For the development of such areas, detailed national plans (which should include the training of manpower) and the development of a few nodal points, with linkages to villages and the main industrial towns are recommended. \ 2 1

II, PLANT LAYOUT AND PRODUCTION METHODS

A. THE PRESENT STATE

The following tables represent the data collected on the subject of plant layout and production methods practised in this country. Table 3.2.a. - Type of Layout Table 3*2.b. - Materials Handling Methods

B. AN ANALYSIS: PLANT LAYOUT AND PRODUCTION

5*2.1. Small-scale Works

Small sized firms have few items of equipment and do not have any particular pattern (this is referred to as “mixed” layout in Table 3*2.a.) of layout* Depending on the' type of work undertaken, such establishments may be divided as follows (a) Blacksmith Type:-* Generally have a floor space 2 of about 50m , one work bench, a portable hear-ch and at least one electric welding unit. The shop is crowded with material stored along the walls or on an overhead gallery* Generally, without an office. (b) Machinist Type:- Similar to above but with less working space because of the area taken by machines. Besides machines, such shops also have electric, welding units. .(c) Tinsmith Type:- (i) Crafts:- Have no power tools. Work is carried out on floor for manufacture of items like trunks and boxes.’ (ii) Tank Manufacture:- Besides tanks, they manufacture buckets, drain pipes and so on. Layout similar to blacksmith's but tend to have less space for the storage of large tank3.

The small handicraft and machine shops are generally overcrowded. For example, a typical shop (Table A,I,45) o had an area of 2,33m to each worker. This is less than 2 15 by about 1 .27m as that recommended by Greene o SIZE OF TYPE OF LAYOUT FIRM MIXED BAYS HEAVY GROUPED LIKE OTHER TOTAL

Small 81 .6 9*3 0.93 1.9 3.6 2.7 100

Medium 30.4 11.6 15.2 20.5 16.1 6.2 100 < 128

large — 6.6 26.7 36.7 26.7 3.3 o o

TYPE OF LAYOUT (Per- cent of firms)

(Table 5 .2.a ) SIZE . - - - MATERIALS HANDLING METHODS Ur i ! Manual il Trolleys Fork Lift I Mobile j Overhead Con Other Total FIRM Methods only ' Trucks Cranes cranes & veyors j Lifting » ! \ Tackle l i j ■ i 1 l 1 1 j Snail 96.4 0.9 [ 1 ©8 — j 0.9 : 100 I "

Medium : 75.4 | 2*7 2*7 | 0.9 1 15.6 1.8 ; o© 9 100 ! ! i Large 2.5 | 19.1 j 7.1 11.9 55.4 19.1 7.1 100 *

MATERIALS HANDLING METHODS (In per cent of firms)

Table 5©2.b 130

Moreover, the use of open electric metal-arc welding is a constant hazard in such shops. This is discussed in nore detail in Para. 7.1*3* y 3.2.2, Group Layout

The words group layout and"baysM are almost synony mous. The former term is used where grouping of machines is more distinct. The equipment is generally grouped for convenience and not necessarily for batch production. This is partly due to the shortage of large batch production in this country. Even for batch production, some of the grouped layouts were found to be arranged in incorrect sequences. Pig. 3.2.A. is an example of such mal practice fouled iv, o-w,*. *Lr>v\, (yraVte. AjUS-.io) 14 M Ivanou outlines theA known principles of Group Technology which can bring mass production principles within the reach of small and medium-batch 1 5 enterprises. According to Thornley , Group Technology can be used for the production of parts more efficiently and economically. Ee states that this type of production may bo done by grouping machines together. In Kenya, there is very little batch production of components, although they are in great demand. This demand is met by importation. For their local manu facture a project for Group Technology could be considered by a body like the Industrial and Development Corporation (I.C.D.C.) and established at an industrial estate.

3.2.3. Heavy Product Layout

Heavy product layout is mostly found in larger firms (Table 3.2.a.), although some small works fabricate heavy products (e,g. structures, vehicle bodies, etc.). A suitable layout is a covered yard with an over-head travelling gantry and a platform of steel p l a t e . POUSrtVMG

f i n i s h e d PRODUCT St o r e

FLOW DIAGRAM : PRODUCTION OF KETTLE *32

H. Young & Company (Table A,III,8) has such a yard. Several workshops doing heavy production were found to be without such facilities. For items which can move under their own power (like lorries), or those which can be moved by materials handling devices, the principle of continuous production can be introduced by maintaining a number of stations for undertaking different steps in the manufacture of the item. Greene ^ explains how such a method was used in the manufacture of a ship. Figs. 5,2.B(1) and (2) are based on approximate distances obtained from one establishment (Table A,III,15). The advantages of the latter method are obvious,

5.2.4. line Layout / This term denotes a layout established for the production of a certain item only. In Kenya, continuous production with various degrees of mechanisation was found in the following industries (a) Containers, crown seals and drum manufacture (b) Manufacture of wire products (c) Impact extrusion of collapsible tubes (d) Hot rolling of bars and rods (e) Limited amount of casting and forging (f) Coating of corrugated iron sheets

In several cases, continuous production is achieved by the use of single units. For example, a single unit i 3 sufficient for the automatic production of nails. The principal advantage of a line layout is in the mass production of a given item. For better productivity, such production lines are genera iiy automated. The basic steps in the progress towards automation are 16 explained in a report on "Automation". Although published in 1956, the following developments towards automation mentioned in the report are still valid:- (a) An increase in the mechanisation of transfer devices, (b) Introduction of numerically-controlled machines. •x ST A T IO N 3 STATION 2 STATION I MATERIAL SWEET-METAL BE^MS, BRACKETS FOR. SEATS

FA&RlCKTC COT TO SIZE CUT TO S1Z.E SEAT FRAMES FlN\SV\ Fl&RE. INSPECT INSPECT WORK « INSPECT

JT. TO PRODUCTIOH J*L TO p r o d u c t io n TO PRODUCTION FiNAL VZ'Vw ljjs[£ Lime ^ — V LIME INSPECTION DRILL FRAME AZ 'W*. -O O ■ O ---- 0 - 0 - 0 o — o — H m — o — 0 ““ 0 * o - AWWT SPRAY INSTALL RIVET ADD WELD LINE m o v e m e m e n t DLL! VERY PMMT SEATS SKIN FLOOR FRAME (CHASSIS MOVING)

SUMMARY MO. OF O P tR K H O K S O IO MO. OF STORAGES V 3 NO. OF TEMPORARY STOR.ES D 1 M o. OF INSPECTIONS □ 7 IMPROVED ASSEMBLY PROCESS CHART MO. CF TRANSPORTATIONS ❖ 5 COACH BODYBUILDING

TOTAL TRAVEL 7 8 FIG. 3.2.B.C2) METRE 135

In Kenya (a) is used in the manufacture of one or two items only and (c) is used by some large-scale firms, but (b) has still to be introduced. 17 A report tabled by the Parliamentary Select Committee on Unemployment stressed the need for employing more men than machines and recommended a duty on the import of all capital ipachines. The. report argues that by doing so more employment opportunities would be created. However, the Develop- ment Plan 1970-1974 projects a growth rate of l + 5f<> in the manufacture of metal products. Moreover, industrialisation in Kenya, as in any other developing country, must move at a faster pace-as -recommended by the Secretary-General of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) . To achieve this, a moderate progress towards more mechanization should be made. The local technology and the market available are not ready to accept and utilise ultra-modern equip ment like numerically-controlled machines, but an increase in the use of more semi-automatic and, in some cases, automatic machines is inevitable. Principles like those of Group Technology (Para.3*2.2.) and other labour-intensive piece-work schemes should be introduced to reduce the risks of unemployment. Also, automation demands a large and steady market for the products. This question is discussed further in Chapter IV.

3.2.9. Materials Handling Methods

Materials Handling is still predominantly manual (Table 3*2.b.). In the very small shops, this is in order; but in the majority of the cases, the provision, maintenance and use of materials handling devices needs improvement. • ^ 136

Several light engineering firms have changed over to heavy work but their materials handling methods have not changed. This is partly due to the availability of cheap labour. Such labour, however, would be better utilised in the type of production outlined at the end of Para. 3*2.4. Por moving materials, firms should make more use of hand-drawn trolleys. In spite of being An inexpensive and simple method, its use was found to be very limited. In some firms with modern production equipment, it was noticed that their materials handling devices were far inferior to the standard of their equipment. A system of this nature can easily impair the efficiency 1 9 of such equipment. Lingard observes that some developing countries get financial help and buy ultra modern machinery without paying attention to the problem of feeding raw material to the machine and taking away the finished product. Firms should avoid falling into such a pitfall, A study carried out by the East African Industries Limited (Appendix,....?.... ) shows that in the long run it is cheaper to employ a fork lift truck than manual labour. By introducing a fork lift truck, twelve men would become redundant and one * driver would have to be employed. This is a problem which the industry has to face but in the metalworking industry, there are some items which, because of their size and weight, have to be moved by mechanical materials handling devices.

G * CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMBNDAT IONS

■*■5.3.6. Small works are generally overcrowded, They should either increase their work floor or reduce the amount of equipment and raw material. Basic principles of human engineering should be used in the layout of tools, welding booths, raw material storage and in the use of work benches. V 137 \

2 - U Over 25/S of large, 15^ of medium and about \% of small-scale works are engaged in heavy engineering practice. Several of these firms have unsuitable sites and do not have adequate lifting equipment. Firms engaged in the large-batch production of certain heavy items may benefit by the introduction of continuous- production principle.

3.2.8 Group layout and the use of "bays” were mostly found in the medium and large-scale works. The grouping of machines is generally done for convenience and not in reference to any production procedures. Firms engaged in large-batch production should examine and re-arrange their equipment in accordance with their production sequences by using principles of method study.

2*2*2 For import substitution of components, bodies like the Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation (I.C.D.C,) should consider a project for the introduction of the principles of Group Technology, preferably for an establishment in the industrial estate. Experts from the I.C.D.C. should organize and give advice on the production management for such an establishment.

3.2.10 At the present stage of development, the industry is not ready to accept ultra-modern production equipment. However, to achieve the 7.3/6 growth rate in the manu facture of metal products as envisaged by the current Development Flan 1970-1974, the use of more machines should be encouraged and also a certain degree of automation should be introduced. Wherever possible, assembly and piece-work should be organized on a labour-intensive basis. 138

3.2,11 Over 95^ small and over 757* medium-sc ale firms were found to be using only manual materials handling methods. While in some small light engineering firms there may not be any requirement for such 'devices, several firms could improve their production by the use of simple materials handling devices. For heavy engineering, there is a requirement for better lifting equipment. 139

III. WORK STUDY

A. THE PRESENT STATE

The present state of the practice of work study methods is shown in Table 3.3.a.

B. AIT ANALYSIS: WORK STUDY PRACTICE

3.3*1, Method Study

Section II of this chapter analysed the question of method study with reference to layout and sequence of production. This is the basic step for work simpli- 20 fication as defined by Lehrer .

3.3.2. Introduction of Work Study Methods

TJae use of work study methods, and particularly of time study, is restricted in the metalworking industry. The question of using work study methods was probably never considered for the following reasons (a) Lack of batch and mass production methods (b) The availability of cheap labour (c) Variation in the technical skill of the workers

Recently with the increase in production and the standardization of technical skills, through industrial training, some firn3 are becoming aware of the usefulness of work study methods. However, at the present stage of its development, the metalworking industry is not , sufficiently advanced to make full use of modern work study methods. A good deal of technological progress is necessary before the industry could benefit from work study methods, and in particular from the practice of time and motion study.

3.3.3. Work Measurement

The main purpose of work-measurement is two-fold (a) For rate fixing and incentive wage schemes (b) For planning and scheduling purposes WORK STUDY METHODS SIZE Time & Synthe Calcu OF Compa- N o Total rat ive* Motion tic Method lation FIRM Method Study Method

Small 16.3 — 8.1 75.6 - 100.0 140

Medium 29*8 - 13.5 56.7 - 100.0

Large 38.0 - 24.1 34.5 3.4 100.0

WORK STUDY METHODS (In per cent of firms)

Table 3.3 -a. * Based on experience from similar jobs previously done. 141

In the metalworking industry, schemes as those at (a) above are not in use* The only schemes used are overtime payments and shift differentials. These are generally based on the monthly salary of the workers. In the absence of piece-work and general mass pro duction principles, the present systems in use are satisfactory. With the introduction of piece-work, firms will have to use standards based on work-measurement practice. The methods used for work study are generally for purpose (b). As mentioned in Para. 4.2.2., firms engaged in automatic production can measure their out put from a knowledge of the efficiency of their machines. Although such firms work on output constants, 21 they do not maintain records of their "Synthetics" . Also, several firms with this type of production were found to be ignoring the measurement of work done by the manual packers. When discussing work-measurement, one comes back to the question of standards, which as pointed out in Para. 5.2.5., are hardly used in the local industry* For example, several firms use the comparative method (Table 3*3.a*), but they do not maintain any records of previous jobs. Therefore, no standards are maintained. For jobbing and small-batch production especially for welding, machining and forging, the method of- finding production rates by calculating speeds, feeds, etc. could be used. For such methods, allowances for fatigue and for materials handling should be made. However, several entrepreneurs would be unable to achieve this because of their low standard of education (Para.6.1.2),

3*3.4 Training;:

Until recently, there was no evidence of taining on 22 work study methods. The first course of this nature was organised by the United Nations Special Fund and East African Railways & ‘Harbours' project in April 1970. * J. 142

Since then the Management Training and Advisory Centre, Nairobi, has held a number of courses on this subject* Training of workers in the art of using tools and in implementing work simplification should also be encouraged. In Japanese factories this is a regular practice ' in the training of their workers.

C. CONCLUSIONS AMD RECOMMENDATIONS

U x S . The use of method study principles in establishing the sequence of production, especially in batch and mass production; and in the simplification of work, should be encouraged in the metalworking industry*

LM No firm was found to be using stop-watch methods for time and motion 3tudy* At the present stage of its development, the industry does not require such methods. Other methods of work-measurement can be useful but these must be based on the standards developed by individual firms* There is a requirement for the preservation of such standards by the firms concerned.

1 l2iI Both internal and external training schemes are essential in order to extend the scope of work 3tudy practice in the Kenyan metalworking industry. .

IY. DESIGN AND DRAWING PRACTICE

A . THE PRESENT STATE A small percentage of establishments were found to be using engineering drawing methods in their production* Table 3*4«a. shows that a mere 29 firms (about 12^) had drawing offices of any description. Several of these offices had out-dated drawing tables, with a few drawing instruments, often not in use. The practice of engineering design is also restricted, although it is employed in the manufacture of structures, most of which are designed by consulting engineers specialising in civil or structural engineering. PER CENT OF FIRMS No. of Esti Products for SIZE firms mated No. which dra 0? with With Without Un Total regularly of wings nor Drawing Drawing Drawing known using out draughts mally used ESTAB1I- Offices Boards/ Facili side dra men ME1JT Tables ties wings

Small Nil 2.8 97.2 Mil ICO 11 1 Small struc tural steel works j 3 4 1 Medium 11.6 15.2 65.2 8.0 100 27 17 Structural j steel-works | and vehicle bod ies large 40.0 16.7 50 13.3 100 18 50 Structural steel-works, vehicle bodies and . trailers DESIGN AND -DRAWING- PRACTICE Table 3 .4.a. 144

B. AH ANALYSIS: DESIGN AND DRAWING PRACTICE

3,4*1* General Trends

Most of the design and drawing practice is carried out on a trial and error'basis* The following example illustrates this trend* An establishment (Table A ,11,14) decided to use locally-made overhead canopies for their new tractors* By doing this, they contemplated a large saving in foreign exchange. The order for the manu facture of about 70 canopies was given to a local firm (Table A,II,35). The design consisted of free-hand sketches with the dimensions of the frame-work based on intuition* The first canopy was fitted on a tractor delivered to a road construction project near Gilgil. After ^only a few hours of running, the canopy began to develop cracks* In due course, most of the other canopies ended up the same way. As a result, all the canopies had to be modified but there was still no guarantee that they would be strong enough* Some small workshops, engaged in non-manufacturing work, may not require the services of a drawing office, but those engaged even in the manufacture of articles like forged lamp-stands could benefit by improving the standard of their design. Several small-scale establish ments fabricate structures, but it was found that they are often not made in accordance with specified drawings. In fact, several entrepreneurs were found to be unable to read simple drawings. However, it was found that generally items which are covered by Government or other legislation are made, in accordance with the design and drawings approved by qualified engineers and after completion, these items are checked and approved by independent inspectors. One of the few examples where approved design is used is that where firms make items according to registered specifications of certain well-known machines. 145

For example, one firm (Table A ,11,45) make tea machinery in accordance to the design and drawings issued by their principals, George Williamson Africa Limited, Nairobi* Marine Engineering establishments (Table A,III,17 and 24) have small but well equipped drawing offices. The former does no design work but has two draughts men for assessing the material required and for making workshop drawings from drawings made abroad by quali fied naval architects. For the manufacture of small sections of a marine vessel, the workshop drawings are made to full scale on large sheets of paper, from which wooden templets are made to assist in the shaping of the metal. The latter claim to have two qualified naval architects engaged in the design of small marine vessels. The "Tool and Jig Design Office", of the railway*s Chief Mechanical Engineer*s Workshop, Nairobi (Table A,III,4) is, perhaps, the best example in Kenya of a drawing office working in conjunction with the pro duction department and the work-floor. It has a supervisor and a staff of four. Jigs and fixtures are designed in this office and the sequence of their production (processing) is established. The design of templets, gauges and machine spare-parts is also undertaken. Standard drawing procedures are maintained for all their vrork. There was little evidence of component design. Ono firm (Table A,II, 49) was found to have a qualified engineer working on design of items like bicycle locks, matchets, etc. Generally, however, the trend seems to be to copy the design of imported items and, in some cases, to adapt them for local production* For example, a firm (Table A,II, 74) was found to get their castings made by using imported components as patterns. Tho plough frames made by one establishment (Table A,II, 51) are understood to be -copied from imported ones. Several'of the locally-made coaches were originally copied, although the coach building has shown some creativity lately. It was found that engineering drawings are rarely used even for the calculation of material required for a particular job* Sound, practical design has many features. Vallance and Doughtie^ sum these features as follows (a) Technical factors (b) Experience factors (c) Kum&n factors

By "technical" factors is meant the ability of the designer to put his engineering knowledge to practical purposes* The experience of the designer with existing designs contribute to the "experience" factors. And by "human" factors is meant that elements should be designed with the view that they are to be used by human beings* Comparing these factors with the state of design practice in Kenya, there seems to be a lack of technical factors* As stated earlier, the use of engineering knowledge in calculating forces, in recommending the correct materials and so on, is used in the manufacture of items like structural steel-works, and to a very small-scale in the mechanical engineering industry* The "experience" factor is responsible for the bulk of engineering manufacture in JUenya* The practice of copying existing designs and relying on the word of the "fundi"*is quite conkion, This trend hinders creative work. In copying existing designs, no special consideration is given to the human factors. This point can again be illustrated by the locally-made canopies for tractors (Page ] 44____ ) These canopies only provide a shade for sun but do not shield the driver from dust, wind or rain,

'3.4.2, Introduction of Design Practice

In spite of a lack of engineering drawing and design practice, workshops in Kenya carry out their business without any apparent handicaps. The intro duction of a new production method like design and drawing is, therefore, a difficult problem. * Swahili word for craftsman. 147

One method of tackling this is by promoting an interest in this field in the metalworking community of Kenya® In India, bodies like ’’Inventions Promotions and Imports Substitution Board" and the Ministry of Industrial Development have launched a strong campaign in promoting interest for the manufacture of local products td sub stitute imported ones. This campaign has paid off good dividends and as reported in ’’World Construction"^, Indian engineers have designed and manufactured devices like bending rolls for cold forming girders, conical drilling bits, vibratory rollers, concrete pumps, transit mixers, etc. A 40-ton capacity revolving gantry won cash awards fox' its designers from the "Inventions Promotions and Imparts Substitution Board", This design saved for India about Rs2 million in foreign ex change . Import restriction can create a necessity for certain items. Such a necessity is essential for the development of an interest in design and creative work* o c The recent measures taken by the Kenya Government brings to light an example where necessity may help in the design and manufacture of a local product: hydraulic hand palleti trucks were being imported to Kenya fx’om Denmark. With the introduction of import restrictions, a firm in Nairobi (Table A,II,22) got the stimulus to manufacture the same item locally with a few.imported components for it. This will involve the design of jigs and fixtures and, pei'haps, an improvement in the existing design so that it may be better adapted for the local market. If the manufacture of such a truck materialises, the effort will be worthwhile both in introducing a design function in Kenya and in saving some foreign exchange for the country. This is an example of an engineering firm having the foresight a M the resources to introduce a home made product to the local market. This may not be the case with most other firms because they fail to under stand the market and,, the importance which the design function has on such a market. 148

Such firms should "be given assistance as discussed in Para. 3*4*3* Another way of introducing the design practice is by encouraging engineers to take a greater interest in processes for reclaiming worn machine parts by re conditioning them. Re-conditioning methods like sub merged-arc welding and "-wtetAlo eking" are used in Kenya* Such methods are in great demand because several components, which ordinarily would be imported from abroad, can be back in service in a few days and at a fraction of the cost of new ones. Effective re clamation requires sound design and workshop practice 27 as stated ^"Conservation”

3.4.3. Establishment of the Design Function

Para. 3.4.2, made remarks on the benefits of obtaining assistance from the Government in an endeavour to improve the standard of the design practice in the metalworking industry. This can best be done by form ing a national design council* Such a council may comprise of members dravm from the industry, the University and the East African Institution 'of Engineers; and should act both as a policy-making and as a consultancy body* The terms of reference and the organi- o o nation of such a council are described by Whitfield with reference' to the United States of America* Whitfield points out that in America, the National Inventors’ Council works in the field of patent law; taxation; and provides incentives for invention and re search activities. The proposed design council would work effectively only if it is fully aware of the problems facing the industry, The council could obtain information from the 29 industry by making regular surveys. Maddock explains the methods used by the Engineering Group of the Ministry of Technology of Britain in carrying out regular surveys with the aim to stimulate technical advance in the industry. 149

Kost design offices were found to have inadequate reference material* While some firms had handbooks on general mechanical engineering, data on local design practice is generally not available* Pitts'"50 shows how the information needs of a designer should be fulfilled. He describes various services and publications which can help a designer. Such a stheme, at least in an elementary form, may be maintained by the proposed national design council, Agbasiere' explains how design can contribute to the improvement of activities like traditional forging and tinsmith practice as undertaken in Africa, With scientific assistance in matters related to design, metallurgy and processes, these skills could contribute to the technological development of a nation,

C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Very little use of engineering design and drawing practice is made by the metalworking industry. Design is generally based on the knowledge of previous designs of parts which are imported and on the experience of the worker. While the knowledge of these factors is essential to a designer, the situation in Kenya is such that too much dependence on past experience is hindering creativity both in the crafts and in the field of - pro duction engineering. The value of good engineering design is often not appreciated* This is partly because the metalworking industry does not fully participate in the market which largely depends on imported goods designed abroad•

As in the building industry, the construction of certain items should not be approved unless they are made in accordance to specified drawings. Such drawings should only be approved by qualified engineers. In this way, the usefulness of good engineering design and drawing practice could be extended to the industry. 1*50

3 .4. 6 . It is recommended that a national design council, with members drawn from the industry, the University and the East African Institution of Engineers, should be established with assistance from the Government. The council should play both a policy-making and a consul tancy role. It should provide incentives to designers and inventors by awarding annual prizes for the best industrial design in the country and for the design and manufacture of items which substitute imported ones* It should conduct regular surveys to assist the industry in improving their products to a standard capable of competing in the local and world markets. The proposed council should also maintain an information centre for engineers and designers*

The practice of reclaiming worn machine parts is becoming common in this country. The practice can be extended to reclaim other components by using sound engineering design principles.

Kenya has started manufacturing small marine vessels but there is a-lack of qualified naval architects in this country. The possibility of training a small number of naval architects should be considered by the University of Nairobi and by other technical institutions in Kenya. PRODUCTION PLANNING

1. MARKET FACTOR 2. PRODUCTION SCHEDULING AND PROCESSING

3. MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT 1-51

PRODUCT I PIT PLAIIDING-

I. THE MARKET FACTOR

A. THE PRRSEKT STATE

The information collected on marketing techniques is shown in Table 4.1 *a.

3. AU ANALYSIS; THE MARKET FACTOR

4.1*1.:™ The influence of market on engineering production is the single most important factor. The type of production, the quality and quantities of the items produced; the type of equipment used and the type of training necessary for the manpower, all depends on this factor. Eor example, in Kenya the market has a big demand for containers. This has resulted in the establishment of automatic plants for theix* production with the use of special equipment; and the training of personnel to operate and maintain such equipment.

The influence of the market fact ox* on plant location is covered under Paragraph 5*1*2. The Development PlarJ 1970-1974 calls for the following action to expand the market for manufactured goods

(a) Import Substitution Import substitution in the manufacturing industry of Kenya is not considered to be as important as it used to be previously. If import restrictions are put on consumer goods, it will not make much improvement in the economy because such goods only account for about 2\fo of the total manufactured goods in Kenya. Inter mediate goods, however, account for about 5o?S but are considered to present technical problems and hence are difficult to manufacture locally, A total ban on import of manufactured goods is not economically feasible at the present state' of development in the country. SIZE J.T I f'J Q . IECNNIQUES

u j ; PIRM PERSONAL SALES SELLING CONTACT DEPARTMENTS AGLETS

■SMALL 90.65$ 5.6$ 3.8?S

MEDIUM 50.0r/° 36.4 5$ 1 3 .65-5 152 i

LARC-E * 1 2 .05$ 83.0^** - .

IIAKKE TING- 'TECHNIQUES Table 4.1.a. * Sxclud.es the quasi-governnent establishments ** Includes firms' having selling agents also* 153

(b) Established Markets There are uncertainties regarding access to old markets in the neighbouring countires. Exports to such countries are bound to suffer as a result of their industrialisation plans, ITew markets, therefore, must be found in Africa and in the Indian Ocean area.

(c) Growth Hate The projected growth rate of export is between 5 and (although for metal pro ducts the situation is not so encouraging, see Paragraph 4.1.3*)« However, if factors like the costs and prices of Kenyan manu- j factured goods could compete with overseas counterparts, a much higher growth rate can be expected,

4 .1 .2,_Import 3institution

Appendix.9... gives details of import restri- i ctions applicable to Kenya at the time of writing. . * Items shown under schedules A and C are imported, ■ j Their local manufacture presents a challenge to the j Kenyan metalworking industry. This challenge should j be met by a national effort by investing more in the j s industry and by the acquisition of technical knowledge j and skills, ' \ fjj Several of the items which are manufactured in | Kenya are still being imported. Some of the examples are razor blades, barbed wirve and hydraulic jacks. ” ! Their import is.still continued because the quality I, of the local products is poor. The development and practice of engineering standards are, tnerefore, nece ssary to bring about more effective import substitution. Another drawback is the lack of raw materials. Although Kenya relies heavily on the raw materials obtained from. abroad, a-certain amount _ of import substitution is possible. This is discussed further in Chapter II. ?; i . 1-54

More detailed planning by the government in training, financing and in the protection of the industry is required. The development approach 2 suggested by Staley may prove suitable for Kenya. » Briefly, his approach aims at making small industries more efficient; to change to the production of more profitable items; and to enlarge the size and the production capacity of the plants.

4.1,?. Established Markets The majority of the metal products made in the country are consumed by the local market. Berna^ suggests certain points in the improvement of a domestic market. According to him, firstly, the efficient development of, marketing techniques '-.^eaulsjfc^n widening the market; and secondly, for effective marketing, there must be "low-cost chan nels of commerce through which goods can move expeditiously from factory to final user.." In a study of small-scale entrepreneurship, he found three methods of marketing:- (i) Personal contact with the buyer at the work-floor level (ii) Establishment of sales departments or branches as distinct from the factory. (iii) Employment of selling agents

Table 4*1*a. shows the marketing methods.used in the metalworking industry of Kenya, from which it is clear that the marketing effort is largely based on traditional methods. This ds mainly due to the large number of small and medium sized firms which are engaged in jobbing and work according to the personal orders they get. Concerning export, some firms are known to be manufacturing and exporting goods to the neighbouring East African countries* Compared with agricultural products, (Appendix 11), the export of metal products is very low. < - 155

The projected export figures for 1974 show that the export of metal products will drop by 1 fo. This trend will have an adverse effect on the metal-working industry. It is, therefore, important that new export markets be found. At the UNCTAD III Conference^, Kenya called for a new world commodity arrangement and suggested methods for the transfer of technology from the developed to the developing countries and for the formation of a market within the block of developing ChuntireSsattending the conference. An attempt should be made^o put such methods into practice.

C. CONCLUSIONS AND RNCOMKSIU)ATIONS: THE MARKET FACTOR

4 . U 4 »

The market has a strong influence on the practice of metalworking. The quality and quantity of products; the mode of manufacture; the choice of equipment; and the training of the personnel are some of the factors which depend upon the size and type of the market. The Development Plan 1970-1974* suggests several ways for the widening of the existing markets and the acquisi tion of new ones. Over the years, the import of a number of products has been stopped. This has helped stimulate local manufacture* However, a total ban on some capital and intermediate goods is not economically feasible at present. Compared with consumer goods, a greater percentage of intermediate goods are used in Kenya. Their local manufacture, therefore, would benefit the economy more. The production of inter mediate goods present complex technical problems, which could only be overcome by the acquisition of specialised knowledge and skills. More detailed planning by the government in the fields of technical training and in the financing, could result in potential projects for the manufacture of such goods. 4* 1*5 Nearly 51^ of the local marketing of metal products is based on traditional methods. An improvement of marketing techniques can help widen the domestic market and create a greater demand for metal products. The establishment of marketing techniques could assist in this matter. I-letal products account for about 3# of the total exports from Kenya. This is a small per centage when compared with agricultural products which account for about 6Q;$ of the total export. By 1974? the export of metal products is expected to drop by 1^. This would have an adverse effect on the whole industry. The importance of finding new export markets, therefore, cannotj be stressed further. •157

II. PRODUCTION, SCHEDULING AND PROCESSING A. THE PRESENT STATE / The data collected on the use of production . planning methods is presented in the following tables Table 4*2.a. - Production Scheduling and Processing Methods. Table 4*2.b. - Example of Processing and Scheduling. B. AN ANALYSIS: PRODUCTION SCHEDULING- AND PROCESSING 4.2.1. Jobbing and Small-hatch Production In jobbing (Table 4.2.a.) very few small and medium sized ^irms apply planning methods in their routine work. Such firms do general mechanical engineering work and a considerable amount of their activity involves repair and other non-manufacturing type of work. 5 According to Ellon the main purpose of production planning is "to make effective use of the resources available ,to the enterprise". He considers manpower-; materials; machines; money; and methods as the main resources. The co-ordination of these factors contri bute to effective production planning. In the local small-scale job-shop, the entrepreneur, himself, a skilled man, is often in direct control of the first four factors* His main drawback is in tho use of methods. These methods may concern the use of engineering standards (Paragraph S’-1 . k); the training of his workers (Paragraph 6.1.2); or the layout of his equipment (Paragraph 3.2.1). In the larger firms, especially those employing over 25 workers, there is a requirement for scheduling, The method suggested by Gillespie^ is recommended for such shops in Kenya. The method consists of estimating the labour cost for the manufacture of the item. . SIZE OF JOBBING/SMALL-BATCH PRODUCTION LARGE-BATCH/MASS p r o d u c t i o n FIRM Methods Methods Not Methods Methods Not Total Total used Not used Confined used Not used 'Confined • f SMALL 5.0 97.0 100.0 j 25.0 75.0 — 100.0 I ! It I MEDIUM 16.7 70.0 13.5 100.0 | 40.0 35.0 25.0 100.0 i SSI ! LARGS | 61.0 | 53.4 5.6 100.0 66.7 16.7 16.7 100.0 I ; “ I 1------!------!------

USB OF PRODUCTION SCHEDULING/FROCESSING METHODS (In percentage of firms)

Table 4.2.a. 1*59

This cost is broken dcvn with respect to the different shop3 and is then converted into hours. Once the hours are obtained, they may be used for scheduling. Besides scheduling, this method can indicate whether the labour is being used effectively*

For the manufacture of products requiring several processes, processing (i.e. deciding the sequence of manufacture) is also applicable. In the local industry processing is generally done by the word of mouth. While this is acceptable for the smaller establishments, the larger ones should make use of processing charts. A simple scheduling and processing chart as used by one establishment (Table A,II,8) is shown /in Table 4*2.b, The railways'workshop in Nairobi i3 perhaps the only establishment in Kenya which uses detailed processing charts.

4.2,2. Large-batch and Mass Production

Large-batch production is mainly confined to the manufacture of office and domestic metal furniture production. In this field only one establishment (Table A*III,13) was found to be using scheduling and processing methods based on the principles of pro duction planning. Their method consists of finding an economical batch size for a one month production run. Scheduling is then done and is based on "Synthetics'1 (Paragraph 3*5*5*)» from which the man hours required for a particular run are known. Week ends are generally not scheduled and are left for any late orders*

In mass production, planning is based on the pro duction rates of the machines. Most establishments work towards a weekly or a monthly production target. r

1.60

PRODUCT: Bracket QUANTITY: 5,000.

PROCESS OPEHATIOK/PIECES HOURS

Guillotine 10,000 pieces 18 Crop ends 20,000 operations 24 Pierce hole3 5,000 operations 8 Porm small section 5,000 operations 10 Form one end - 12 Form two ends - 12 Spot Veld — 42

Total Hours...... 126

Instructions:- When job commences, report to the Works Manager. Then daily with quantities done and time on each operation.

EXAMPLE OP PROCESSING AND SCHEDULING

Table 4.2,b. 161

Appendix* .19... chows a production programme for one establishment (Table A,III,24). Most establishments, however, make no analytical programmes for their- pro duction planning* In a number of establishments, elaborate methods of production planning are not applicable. This Is due to either the small size of such establisiiment3 or to the lack of regular large-batch production throughout the year and due to the non-manufacturing activities of several firms. Such establishments may have several slack periods in a year. Hence, the use of production planning aids like Gnat Charts and route cards are not strictly applicable unless there is an expansion in the production of metal products. However, as discussed in Paragraph 4.2.1., there is a requirement for simple methods of production planning.

G * CONCLUSIONS x m BECOMILENLATIONS

4.2,^:- Most of the small sized establishments are engaged in repair and non-manufacturing type of work. Production planning methods are, therefore, not applicable to such firms, although there is a require ment for them to develop, maintain and practise general engineering standards. Lai’ger firms with jobbing or small-batch production rarely use production planning methods. To make a better use of their resources such firms should employ simple production scheduling and processing methods.

4.2.4:- Establishments engaged in mass production roly on the production rates of their machines for the pur~ pose of scheduling. While this is an acceptable prac tice, most firms do not carry out analytical studies to improve on their overall production. Out of the firms engaged in large-batch production only one was found to be using production planning methods* It is recommended that for large-batch production, the deter mination of an economical batch size should be a pre- requisit. 162

III. MAINTENANCE OF EQUIPMENT

A. THE PRESENT STATE

Table 4.3.a. shows the present trend of maintenance of metalworking equipment.

B . ANALYSIS: MAINTENANCE PH ACT ICE

4.3*1. Conventional Machinery

No standard methods are used in the maintenance of local metalworking equipment (Table 4*3.a*)* Main tenance is generally undertaken on finding a fault. Out of the establishments using conventional machinery, only 24^ were found to be performing simple maintenance operations, and none was using planned maintenance 7 methods. On the cost of maintenance, PrcKikov states:

11.... the cost of maintaining and servicing a tool during one maintenance cycle (i.e. up to and including a major overhaul) is greater than the cost of a new machine, and if maintenance and repair are badly organized, it can be several times greater”.

The situation in Kenya is different because moot conventional machines are not used continuously. In spite of this, there is a requirement for the'intro duction of simple maintenance procedures, especially for establishments having larger outputs* Such procedures should be part of -engineering standards (paragraph 5*1 *6).

4.3*2. Automatic Machinery

The situation with plants having automatic machinery is much better (Table 4.3*a). There is a greater awareness in such plants for the benefits of preventive maintenance. METHOD OF MAINTENANCE !------On Fault Casual Type of Machinery Finding Planned TOTAL Method only

Convent i onal 76 — 24 100 163

.Automatic - 43 57 100

MAINTENANCE PRACTICE (In percentage of firms)

Table 4 «3. a. J, 164

Firms having automatic machines were found to have maintenance departments, but few of them had well organized teams working in accordance with established maintenance programmes, i.e. programmes which take into account the effect of maintenance on production. Standards for the maintenance of automatic machinery 7 should be established. Pronikov gives useful information on the repair and maintenance of machine tools in developing countries.

C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.3.3:- No definite procedures or standards are used in the maintenance of conventional metalworking equipment. A certain degree of maintenance of pro duction equipment is undertaken but there is a require ment for the use of better preventive maintenance programmes. Standards for the maintenance of conve ntional and automatic machinery should be developed and used by the Kenyan metalworking industry. CHAPTER V

QUALITY AND MATERIAL CONTROL

---xXx--- I QUALITY AND MATERIAL CONTROL

A. THE PRESENT STATE

5.1.1. Quality Control

The following tables show the present state of quality control practice in the Kenyan metalworking industry. Table 5.1.a:~ Use and Inspection of Tools of Quality Control Table 5. Kb:- Inspection Procedures Table 5.1.c:- Standards

5.1.2. Material Control

In the smaller workshops, material control is generally well organised, although many firms were observed to be ignoring the practice of using racks0 Material control practice in the larger firms is generally poor. Most establishments use no material control procedures. A typical example is of a firm (Table A,II,31) which had 46 workers and foremen at the time the survey was conducted. It had no storemen and the material was just piled up in certain places and was picked up by the workers as and when it was required.

B . AIT ANALYSIS: QUALITY AND MATERIAL CONTROL

5.1.3. Tools of Quality Control Table 5.1.a. gives somo statistical data about the use of measuring instruments. The standard of their general storage, maintenance, inspection and usage is of a low degree. This is clear from the table which shows that no small sized firm does inpsection of their instruments; and that only 197^ and 28% of the medium and large sized firms inspect their instruments. SIZE USE OF TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL INSPECTION 0? Micrometer Slip Vernier Surface OF TOOLS FIRM Total OF QUALITY Screw Gauge s Calipers Plates Gauge s CONTROL

Small 35.6 NIL 54.8 9.6 100.0 NIL

Medium 59.5 5.9 - 36.6 100.0 19.0 991 large 22.8 7.4 40.0 29.8 100.0 28.0

USE AND INSPECTION OP TOOLS OF QUALITY CONTROL

(In per cent of firms)

Table 5.1»a. 1 Left with Responsibility 1 Specially owner, of Engineering Not SIZE Total Employed foremen Management Confirtn.. OP Inspectors a<3U or FIRM workers

- - Small 100.0 - 100.0 167

Medium 66*6 25.2 1 .0 7.2 100.0

Large 46.7 25.3 16.7 13.3 100.0

INSPECTION PROCEDURES IN PRODUCTION- *

(In per cent, of firms)

Table 5.1 .b. * Includes jobbing work* SIZE FIRMS USING METRICATION 0? STANDARDS' Not Transi Not Completed Total FIRM BOOKS Started tional Confirnv.e(L

Small 23 92.6 5.6 1.8 - 100

Medium 47 56.2 26.8 13.4 3.6 100 891- Large 81 53.3 16.7 16.7 13.3 100

Total - 71.6 16.4 8.8 3*2 100 i ______!______. ■■ I.l...... — 1 STANDARDS (In per cent of firms)

Table 5.1 *c 4 . 169

1 Rice states that it is normal for a workshop without an organized system for the maintenance and inspection of measuring equipment, to have from 30 to 50^ of their equipment giving defective answers. From this it could be concluded that most of the tools of quality control in use in the metalworking industry of Kenya may be defective. Individual firms should give top priority for establishing correct procedures for the maintenance 2 and inspection of such tools. Juran gives some details of a procedure for such maintenance. However, most firms, would be unable to inspect their instru ments even if they followed a procedure because of the lack of "master” or inspection gauges. In fact, the majority do not possess even workshop grade slip gauges as indicated in Table 5.1.a. In this respect, the establishment of a national materials testing laboratory (Paragraph 5.1*7) should prove invaluable. With the poor maintenance standard of measuring instruments, precision engineering in Kenya can only produce articles whose dimensional accuracy is not even up to the standard which a well maintained micrometer screw gauge could help to attain.

5.1.4. Inspection Procedures

In the small sized firms inspection is left with the workers (Table 5.1*b.). Since most of these firms are engaged in craft practice, this is in order; although those engaged in precision grinding and structural work should use other means of inspection. Central inspection on a table arranged for inspection and under the supervision of either a senior worker or the entrepreneur himself could prove the best method. As with the smaller firms, a high percentage of medium and large sized establishments do not use any particular inspection procedures. 170

This is partly because of a lack of high quality production* However, even in jobbing, there are several factors where inspection can improve the % quality of production. Seder mentions five such factors as the set-up of the job; the condition of the machine; the skill of the operator; and the type of material* To improve the quality of the local products, inspection procedures should pay careful attention to such factors.

In jobbing and small-batch production, there is no requirement for the employment of inspectors, although independent inspection by the entrepreneur or a foreman is recommended. As stated earlier, the method of having a central inspection station would be the most suitable.

More establishments with large-batch and mass production should employ inspectors. Such establish ments should use planned inspection procedures.

5*1.5. Kenya National Standards

For the last few years, discussions have been going on for the establishment of an Hast African Bureau of Standards for the objective of establishing standards for local application. In January 1970, Phillips^ writing in the "East African Report on Trade & Industry" mentioned about the formation of a Standards Office and the establishment of the East African Metric Standing Committee, From recent reports , however, it is apparent that no official document has been issued on engineering standards. £ In Kenya, there have been Government notifications for general standards for industrial use, but apart from the progress reported above, there are no official regulations* The normal practice is still to refer to the British Standards Specifications. 1.71

These standards may not he compulsory and are, therefore, 7 often used voluntarily . The Weights and Measures Act, Chapter 513 of the "Laws of Kenya", give legal details of the establishment of Standards, and their enforce ment. When the local engineering standard’s are established, this Act should make their enforcement compulsory.

During the last few years, Kenya has been going through the process of metrication. The Metric System Act 1968 (Act No. 63 of 1968) commenced on 20th December, 1968 and it gives the Minister the power to order any sector of the industry and to specify the date for the conversion to the metric system.

In the metalworking industry, it was found that those/concerned with weights (like the px'oduction of nails) had changed over to the metric system. On the side of measurements, however, very little progress is being made* This is clear from Table 5.1.c. In fact, nearly all the firms which reported as having converted to the metric system were either dealing in items which are weighed or were merely capable of working from drawings (generally of structures) having metric dimensions. Moreover, nearly all the equipment va3 found to be in the British System.

Prom the aforesaid and especially from the fact that most of the equipment will have to be converted or replaced, the cost to the industry will be phenomenal. In Britain, the Government decided in May 1965 to gradually change over to the metric system Q by 1975# V/eston describes how the British Government and the industry are tackling this problem together. The Government has based its plan on the recommendations received from the industry. 172

This type of communication is essential for the success of such a plan, especially in calculating the time in which the industry could economically be converted to use the metric system, » At the present rate of progress, only 8.8fo of the total metalworking establishments have changed over to metric system. Considering a uniform progress per year, this gives a 2.2?$ growth per year for the period 1969 to 1972 (inclusive). At this rate of growth, the number of years required for complete metrication may be found from the following equation:-

Sn = So (1

Where, gn _ xotal number of firms which should. use metric system after n years* So = Number of firms which already use the metric system. r - Percentage increase in the number of firms using the metric system.

Evaluating the above equation,

250 = 22(1 -h 2,2sn 100;

From, which n 11 years.

At the present percentage increase, therefore, it would take over 11 years to convert the metalworking industry to use the metric system. After 11 years, however, most of the equipment would be obsolete (Paragraph 1.1*3) and could be replaced by their metric counterparts. This is a long period for the conversions and also there i3 no guarantee that the present rate of increase would continue. Hence, the requirements for more effective and less tixie-consuming methods for conversion are imperative. 173

9 At a seminar on metrication held at the factory of Whiteby Lang & Neill Limited, Liverpool (United Kingdom), the following equipment for converting- machines to the metric system were mentioneds- Simple dual reading dials for lead screws Re-engraving of existing dials Use of metric-reading optics

The use of such conversion equipment and the replacement of old machinery (Paragraph 1.1.3) should be the bas*s of metric conversion in Kenya. The Kenyan branch of the East African Metric Standing Committee should invite representatives from the industry, the University and other professional bodies to discuss this conversion before issuing any regulations A recommended outline network analysis for the con version of the Kenyan metalworking industry to the use of the metric system is given in Pig*. 5*1 .A.

A sub^-committee to deal with the conversion in the engineering and construction industries, was reported^ to have been formed by the Ministry of Works in 1967. It consisted of members from the East African Institution of Engineers; Ministry of Works; and from the Institute of Architects and Chartered Surveyors, It is not known how much progress this sub-committee- has made, but the author found that it had not created any practical influence in the metalworking industry.

5.1.6, Use of Standards * The use of engineering standards in metal industry of Kenya is severely limited. There are many instances where no standards are used. As shown in Table 5.1.c. even the application of engineering books is rare, especially in the small and medium sized firms. The percentages shown consist of firms many of which had only one book. This factor seriously limits the scope of such firms to produce work to any given standards.

i pncPnQF PlM-t POg; WHOLb vK O U S T ^ IMPLEMENT Pl-M*. USE DEKOKSTftVHOK EQUIPMENT S* REPl_KC£MEHT POUC^

TRKtN MEH CiP *e*ST A-FPJCkN Ms-T Rl C ST t%ND vts 0 EVENT l. FORMATION OF POLICY. . C-OMMITIEE'1 2., COMPLETION OF PLANNING. ■b. COMPLETION OF EXPERIMENTS A. COMPLETION OP METRICATION EDUCATTONfkL MEDIA, p r o g r a m m e .

NETWORK ANALYSrS FOR METRICATION 175

This situation deteriorates when the question of individual company standards are considered. It is estimated that no more than about ten firms in Kenya maintain and enforce the use of engineering standards. Firms generally have a loose pattern of traditional engineering practice and rules for workers and other staff members. But these are rarely defined and are not maintained in a written form.

Standards for tho following factors are recommended for the local metalworking firms:-

Measuring Instruments Limits and Fits Drawing Practice Material Identification and Control Stores Procedure Equipment Safety and Security

Wilson® describes in detail the importance of industrial standardization in developing countries, f In this context, engineering standards cover all aspects of engineering practice, i,e. metrology; discipline and regulations for workers, safety, etc,

5*1*7. Materials Testing In the commercial sector of the metalworking, industry, only two instances were found where materials testing equipment was being used. In both these cases the equipment was for hardness testing, and was used by large-scale firms. This is insignificant in an industry having well over two hundred firms and shows the lack of the practice of materials testing. In the Government and quasi-government sector, the Materials Branch of the Ministry of Works maintainns a materials testing centre at Commercial Street, Nairobi and the railways workshops in Nairobi use materials testing techniques. 176

The former is the only materials testing laboratory in Kenya, apart from the facilities offered by the Univer sity of Nairobi. Thi3 laboratory is better equipped for testing of materials used in buildings and road- making projects. However, in view of the age of some of the testing machines and the fact that it is housed in an old wooden building without means of controlling the temperature or humidity, makes it un suitable as an institution where national standards could be maintained and materials tested. The establishment of a national laboratory with modern metrological equipment is, therefore, an essential requirement.: As mentioned in Section A of this chapter, the practice of material control is poor. This is mainly due to:- (a) Manufacture without the use of detailed drawings. (b) A lack of storemen. (c) Poor storage facilities and procedures.

G. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5* K 8:- The normal tools of quality control are applied in the metalworking industry of Kenya. The quantities of slip and plug gauges were found to ba considerably low. No standard methods are used for the storage, maintenance, and inspection of gauges and in most cases, measuring instruments are treated in the same way as metalworking hand tools. With such malpractice, it would be normal for a firm to have between 30 to 50C,Z of their instruments giving wrong results. Individual establishments should be more conscious of quality control and should establish methods for the care and inspection of their measuring instruments* More application of simple surface' plates should be made. 177

Firms should use slip gauges both for precision work and for the routine inspection of their normal gauges. The Inspectorate of Factories should make it compulsory for the inspection of certain gauges at least once a year.

5.1.9s- A large percentage of establishments use no inspection procedures in their routine production and non-manufacturing activities. For small sized firm3 engaged in craft practice, this is in order; but those manufacturing other articles and doing precision machining, a centralized system of inspection under the supervision of the entrepreneur is recommended. Larger establishments, engaged in large-batch and mass production should employ inspectors and should use planned inspection procedures.

5.1.10:- There has been much discussion about the establishment of engineering standards applicable to the East African countries. In spite of this, no local standards have been formed. Establishments rely on specifications like the British Standards Specifi cations, For the local metalworking industry to follow a code of specifications, it is essential that national standards be established and enforced by an act of the "Laws of Kenya*'. Moreover, individual firms rarely apply general engineering standards. It is recommended that firms should develop and apply their own standards for factors like production costs; material control; drawing practice; maintenance practice and safety procedures. :

5.1.11:- "The Metric System Act" commenced on 20th December, 1968. Since then some weight and measure systems used in Kenya have been converted to the metric system, but the situation in the metalworking industry is such that a large percentage of establishments (over 90# small; over 55# medium and over 50# large sized) have not even commenced to use the metric system of measurement; 170

and at the present rate of progress, the industry may take about 11 years to obtain complete metrication* The conversion to the metric system poses many problems but they could be tackled by a gradual process with the co-operation of the industry, the Government and professional institutions.

5.1*12;- In Kenya, there are only two commercial institutions for material testing. The main materials testing laboratory occupies an unsuitable building and does not have the equipment for accurate testing of materials* There is a requirement for a national materials and standards laboratory wxth modern equip ment and good facilities. Such a laboratory should be staffed by qualified engineers and other trained personnel and it should operate branches in the major industrial centres of Kenya.

5.1*13?" Metalworking establishments rarely use materials control and storage procedures. Materials control can be improved if more use of detailed engineering drawings for estimating is made; and better storage procedures can be introduced if establish ments employ at least one storeman (or delegate the duties of storekeeping to a member of the staff) and use batter physical means of storing and identifying materials. PART THREE

MANPOWER

"AND WORKING CONDITIONS -----X ----- C H A P T E R VI

MANPOWER & TRAINING- —X— 179

I. MANPOWER A. THE PRESENT STATE

The present manpower state in the metalworking industry is represented by the following tables Table 6.1 .a : Manpower in the Metalworking Industry Table 6.Kb : Comparison of Grades of Manpower Table 6,1*c : Employment of Engineers According to Field of Work Table 6.1.d i Manpower Employed According to Field of Work Table 6.1.0 : Industrial Training Table 6.1.f : Demand & Supply for Manpower for the Metalworking Industry (1970/71 - 1974) B. AN ANALYSIS: MANPOWER

6.1.1. Demand (a) Engineers:- There is a small percentage of engineers employed in the metalworking industry of Kenya (Table 6.1.b). As discussed in Para. 6.1.4., this is mainly due to a poor utilisation of engineers. However* based on the numbers employed, estimates show that a situation may arise in 1974 when the demand for engineers will exceed the supply (Table 6.1.f). The difference between the demand and supply will largely depend upon the growth of the industry and upon its ability to uti lise more engineers than it does at the present stage. The type of work which attracts most engineers is in the field of batch oz* mass production of metal articles (Table 6.1.c). This i3 followed by structural work; general mechanical engineering; marine-craft manufacture and repair; and railway* repair work. The employment of engineers in any of the above fields depend upon the development of that particular field. For example, in the field of production, Kenya has a big market to serve (products include cans, collapsible tubes, and wire pro ducts). This culls for specialist machinery (mostly automatic) and highly trained engineers. Similarly, structural work, vrhich relies on the rapidly expanding building industry of Kenya, requires engineers'. *Grly includes the railway workshops in Nairobi. QUA N TIT Y 's i z e Engi Draught Entre Mana Techni Fore Clerks Skilled Semi Mach Un OP neers smen • pre gers cians men V/orkers skilled ine skilled FIRM -a- neurs workers Op rra- workers ■x* tors *-** j Snail 1 . 1 112 9 3 3 3 178 217 7 40 f I i Medium 24 10 32 1 64 7 35 128 ■ 878 1051 234 297 i

1 '180 | Large (Private) 33 26 M l 57 33 78 195 604 793 748 562

Large - ■ i (Public) 10 4 | - - - 68 - 676 4 13 - 420 f I 1 Total 6S 41 144 250 43 | 252 325 2336 2474 989 1319 i MANPOWER IN THE METALWORKING- I INDUSTRY Table 6»1.a. * With, formal or professional qualifications. ** Owner-managers, mostly highly skilled. *** Operators of automatic or semi-auto: machinery. QUANTITY (PERCENTAGES) SIZE Managers* Engi Tech Fore Clerks MANUAL WORKEFLS AND and neers nicians men Semi- Un- ' Mach Skilled FIRM Entrepre * Skilled Skilled ine Total neurs % Opera tors 81 18 Snail 21 .1 0.1 0.7 0.52 0.52 31.0 37.8 7.0 1.3 100.0

Medium 6.6 0.7 0.3 2.8 4.6 28.6 34.4 14.4 7.6 100.0

Large 2.1 0.9 1.3 2.4 6.2 17.6 23.1 24.6 21.8 100.0

COMPARISON OF GRADES OP MANPOWER (Private Sector Only) Table 6,1eb. * Estimated for firms from which quantitative data was“ not obtained. 182.

PERCENTAGE FIELD OF WORK EMPLOYED

•

Structural Work 20.3

€ .

Batch and Mass Production 45.8

Marine-craft*: Manufacture and repair work 8.5

Railways*: Repair Work 11.8

General Mechanical Engineering 13.6

EMPLOYMENT OP ENGINEERS ACCORDING TO FIELD OF WORK

Tabic 6.1.c.

* Workshop personnel only. MANPOWER (PERCENTAGES) {! FIELD MANUAL WORKERS Engi Tech Fore Clerks Mana Semi Un Mach i OF gers neers nicians men Skilled I skilled skilled ine Total j WORK ■K- Opera tors \ | General ; Mechanical 3.5 2.1 2.1 0.0 9.1 52.4 15.4 15.4 0.0 100.0 Engineering

Structural Work 2.1 0.8 0.8 1.7 6.3 12.6 33.7 42.0 00.0 100.6'

XT(? o* o Production 1 06 1.6 1 a2 5.0 12.3 5.6 11.2 5.6 55.9 100.0

MANPOWER EMPLOYED ACCORDING TO FIELD OF WORK

Table 6,1.d. * Estimated. The above results are from three firms, each successfully established in one of the above fields of works(Reference: Table A,III,6,24 & 27)* — PERCENT AGE OP FIRES | SIZE NUMBER OF NUMBER OF 1. ____ FIRMS APPRENTICES** ! OF On-the-job 1 Other* No Total EMPLOYING Methods of APPRENTICES FIRM Training Training Training

. Small 26*5 2.5 71.0 100.0 26 13

Kediuri 42.3 25*6 32.1 100.0 38 ■ 1 "

Large - 79.2s 20.8 100.0 146*** " I —

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

Table 6<,1 ,e.

* Includes evening classes at Polytechnics. ** Includes apprentices not employed in accordance vith the Industrial Training Act. * *** Estimated* Excludes the public sector. x Includes On-the-job training. DEMAND SUPPLY Grade of Total For For From From From Industry & Cumula Emp tive Manpower Kenya- gro Univer Over other Kenyan loyed Total Total ni ca wth & sity of seas Training Pro Total tion was Nairobi grammes tage

Engineers 58 15 24 59 17 10 - 27 -12

Managers &

Entrepreneurs 398 75 27 102 - - 10* -92 185 i | Technicians & : Draughtsmen 97 11 42 53 16 28 44 -9

I Skilled ; ’Workers 2336 223 1 ,100 1323 — — 720 720 -603

Foremen 174 24 36 60 - - 23 > 23 -57 — — ..... —... DEMAND AND SUPPLY FOR MANPOWER FOR THE METALWORKING- INDUSTRY (1970/71 TO 1974) (PRIVATE SECTOR ONLY) Table 6.1.f. Notes1. Unless otherwise stated, the projections are in proportion to the national requirements ("Development Plan,1970-1974", Republic of Kenya, page 120). * In proportion to the Affiliated & Student members of the Kenya Institute of Management (refer K.I.A. Development Plan, 13th December, 1972). 186

On the other hand, general mechanical engineering, although practised by most establishments, lack3 the standard of design and quality to attract a large number of engineers. i The Manpower Survey , 1967* found nearly 91/° of all (total employed were 374) the mechanical engineers as non-citizens. With the employment of more Kenyans this situation has improved since then. However, complete Kenyanization for the period ending in 1974 would create a great shortage of engineers. (b) Managers:- All the small sized firms are one- man businesses. They are run on a family pattern, the son picking up a trade from hi3 father. Such firms represent over AOfo of the total but they have no demand for the employment of managers. However, nearly 90^ of such firms were found to be owned by non-citizens. Kenyanization, therefore, would produce the greatest demand in such firms. Several middle sized firms are also run on the aforementioned pattern. Larger firms employ a number of managers and there is a definite demand for managers in such firms. At the end of 1974* the total estimated demand may bo 1^2 (Table 6.1*f.). This is a conservative figure and the actual demand when one takes into consi deration. the- broader aspects of management, may well be twice as much.

(c) Technicians and Draughtsmen:- In the metal- 2 working industry, Jackson recommends the ratio of technicians to professionally qualified men as 3=>8:1, In the Kenyan metalworking industry, the number of tech nicians employed per engineer is much smaller. This is clear from Table 6.1.f., which gives a ratio of 1*67:1 when technicians and draughtsmen are considered together; and from Table 601ob. the ratio of technicians to engi neers is 1*03:1. In specified establishments with different fields (Table 6.1.d.), this ratio is 1:1, e howing even a lesser degree of employment of technicians per engineer, 167

Draughtsmen are generally employed on structural work. Firms manufacturing casements also employ draughts men for general drawing duties and for liaison with architects. Due to the general lack of mechanical engi neering design practice (Para. 3«4.1)f very few draughts men are employed for the design of either products, or jigs and tools. The demand for technicians is more than that for engineers. More school-leavers should, therefore, be encouraged to pursue training leading to a technician's career. To do this, there is a requirement for the■3 recognition of the status of a technician, Varley has made some recommendations on this subject and has also made suggestions for the recognition of the status of the technician and the technician engineer.

(d.) Foremens- Although few foremen are employed in the smaller firms (Table 6.1«a), their demand in the metalworking industry is more than that for tech nicians (Table 6«1.£). Most foremen were observed to be working in the Kenyan metalworking industry. In a study conducted in the United States of America, Waite^ found the following percentages of fore men Small Plants 6.4$ (100 to 249 workers) Medium Plants 5*6?S (250 to 999 workers) Lai'go Plants 5.0i» (1,000 or more)

With the large number of workers shown above, these percentages cannot be equated to the industry in Fenya. However, the small, and medium plants mentioned above correspond to the large plants in this country. Comparing this with Table 6,1»b*, the percentage of foremen in the large-scale firms is very small, although in production engineering, the trend is different and there are sufficient foremen employed in some firms (Table 6.I.d). The management pattern of one general engineering firm is worth noting (Table 6.1.d). This firm has no foremen. 1 6 8

Instead, they have appointed work floor managers who, they consider, play a better supervisory ana training role* For the plants mentioned above, b’aite4, gives the following percentages for clerical workers:- Small Plants 3o3fo Medium Plants 3.9?£ Large Plants 3*3^

In Kenya, there seems to be a surplus of clerical workers in the medium and large-scale works (Table 6 . 1 *b).

(o) Manual Workers:- The greatest demand in the industry is for skilled workers. It is over 30 tines the demand for engineers (Table 6*1.f). On the national scale with all the industries combined, there will be a demand^ for 12,82 6 skilled workers at the end of 1974. Table 601.b. gives a breakdown of the categories of manual workers* In the large-scale firms, the trend is changing in that mors machine operators are being employed. This is due to the increase in the use of more semi-automatic and automatic machines. This is clear from Table 6*1od. which shows that one establish ment has over 50^ machine operators and only about skilled 'workers. This trend is reversed for general engineering; and for structural work, a large per centage of unskilled workers is mainly employed for materials handling purposes.■. The percentage of skilled ’workers is highest in the small si~e

The introduction of mass production methods has reduced the requirement for skilled workers. Such methods of production, however, require markets.for a large number of identical goods. As markets for this nature are restricted at present the demand for skilled workers will continue, especially in general mechanical engineering. This is obvious from the distribution curves (Pig. 6.1.A.) which shows that 160 firms employ from one to eleven skilled workers and only thirteen firms employ the same number of machine operators. The known number of firms which employ the same number of unskilled workers is 42.

6.1.2, Training and Supply

(a) Skilled Workers:- The Industrial Training Act (Chapter 237 of the "Laws of Kenya") stipulates the legal requirements of industrial training in Kenya. The Act has appointed an Apprenticeship Board with a Director (previously known as Controller) of apprentices. It defines an apprentice as:» "A person who is bound by a written contract to serve an employer for a determined period of not less than four years, or such lesser period as the Director shall determine under Sub- Section^) of Section 20 of this Act, with a view of.acquiring knowledge, including theory and practice, of a trade in which the employer is reciprocally bound to instruct that person".

for an "indentured learner”, the Act gives a similar definition as above but the training is for a "determined period of les3 than fear years".

Table 6.1.e. shows the trend in industrial training in the metalworking industry. The appointment of the majority of the apprentices does not conform to the stipulations of the above Act. FREQUENCY iTiUiN F OKR IN WORKERS OF DiSTRiBUTiQN EAIN O O F FIRMS OF NO. TO RELATION I. 6.1.A. FIG.

V. 191

This is mainly due to the fact that all the small and most of the medium and some large-scale establish ments neither have the facilities nor the instructors to fulfil the requirements of the Act. Jn fact, the standard of education of most of the entrepreneurs is very low. This situation is similar to that in India g for which Chandrakant writes;- "....a large number of our people are engaged in industrial occupations in big and small factories, construction works, power generation, communication systems, transport organization and in a host of other entrepreneurs, as skilled and semi-skilled workers, artisans, craftsmen opera tives. Many of them are practically illiterate; they learnt their trade from their fathers or on the job. As the industrial development of a country progresses and modern technology is introduced, all these industrial worke.wshould be made functionally literate'1 *

The first requirement, therefore, is for a broad education of entrepreneurs. Such an education scheme should be phased in with Kenyanization. Most of the entrepreneurs are non-citizens; their replacement should consist of persons having a specified minimum standard of education. The difficulty of training apprentices in such 7 establishments is also expressed by Getahi , who recommends the following amendments in the Industrial Training Act:- (i) Firms which employ apprentices should also have members of staff responsible for apprentice training only* (ii) Craftsmen who give on-the-job training to apprentices, should attend short courses on methods of teaching apprentices. In this way, they will be better equipped to under take apprentice training* Such courses should' be organized by the Ministry of labour. 192

The above recommendations are valid but a3 pointed out earlier, unless there is an improvement in the basic education, such schemes will not bear fruit* In accordance with Section 5 of the Industrial Training Act, in 1966 the Apprenticeship Board recommended the establishment of a group of training 7 scheme based on particular industries. Getahi reports the formation Of four groups. Out of these, the group applicable to the metalworking industry covers general engineering, building and civil engineering trades. It is understood that some apprentices were recruited from the industry under this scheme to be trained at the national Industrial Vocational Training Centre, Nairobi*

Acting on the advice of an expert from the Inter national Labour Organization, in 1964, the Kenya Govern ment established the National Industrial Vocational Training Scheme®. The Development Plan 1970-1974, has a programme for the expansion of the industrial training centre at Nairobi and for the establishment of a new centre at Kisumu. The Nairobi centre has a planned annual output of 40 instructors, 100 supervisors and 400 workmen, in addition to a normal training of 50 to 100 apprentices.

It is not known how far the above mentioned scheme has progressed. The author, however, found a lack of communication between this training organisation and the metalworking industry, as most firms were apparently not aware of the facilities ‘which exist at such centres. It is recommended that raining should be done oxi the premises of the firm by having instructors who should be sent out to the industry. In this way, towns which do not have training centres can also benefit. »

1.93

Such a scheme will have to be well organised and financed. For the latter, the method suggested by 7 Getahi whereby the industry shares the cost of training with future reimbursements, could prove useful* Q Edokpayi writing on "Industrialisation and Man power Development in Africa", stressed the need for careful planning of training schemes* The group training scheme mentioned earlier has specified the field of study but it still includes the building and civil engineering trades, , It is proposed that more detailed syllabi for trades in the metal industry should be introduced* In this respect, the views 10 expressed by Vellen3 should be noted (a) Precise job description of the trade (b) Establishment of syllabi (c) The duration of apprenticeship to be based on the syllabi.

According to this method, the training for certain trades may take less than four years (which is at present the period set by the Industrial Training, Act), and for others more than four years* In this way, the period of training for a particular trade can be better utilised. As shown in Table 6.1*e., over 200 apprentices were found to be under training, most of them without former contracts* A flexible approach ... f for such training would be more acceptable than the present four years system which is not followed any-how.

(b) Engineers:- With the projected rate of growth and of Kenyanization, there may be a shortage of engineers in 1974 in the metalworking industry (Table 6.1.f). This shortage, however, may be met if the industry could provide better opportunities for engineers because on the national scale, the supply^ of engineers in 1974 is estimated to be over 170, 194

In addition to the graduates from the University, the industry should encourage professional training. 11 The recent scheme started by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers whereby the student .engineer spends four years under the general supervision of a Principal Industrial Tutor (who will be a member of the staff for which the student engineer works and will be appointed by the Institution) could provide a good opportunity for people in industry aspiring to become engineers. The East African Institution of Engineers should consider such a training programme. The supply of engineers may be adequate for the purpose of Kenyanization, but will the local engineers have sufficient practical experience? While discussing / i ? a paper on "The Practical Training in East Africa of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Graduates", the chairman gave the following conclusion:- "....the problem was that the young engineer was conscious of his status symbol and was not prepared to undertake practical training....".

This type of attitude must be changed if the country is to have practical engineers to develop its technology. In this respect, the suggestions made by 1 7 Palmer ^ are worth considering. He recommends:- (i) An introduction to craft practice at an apprentice training school for a period of six to nine months. (ii) A period to gain work from experience in a normal production plant. This will help the student gain an insight to human problems, (iii) Introduction and attachment for short periods to different departments of a large engineering establishment.

In this context, managers in general and entrepreneurs in particular, are considered to be experienced men who, while managing their own businesses, could also do practical work whenever necessary. For the supply of entrepreneurs, a suggestion is made in Para. 6.1.4(a).

However, there are several schemes for the training of managers. The training facilities mentioned by the Development Plan 1970-1974, includes the Kenya Institution of Administration; The Management Training . and Advisory Centre; and the East African Staff College. The Management Training and Advisory Centre holds regular courses for personnel drawn from the industry* In addition, the East African Institute of Management runs training schemes and a regular programme of lectures.

6.1.3. The Bias Towards Technical Training*

A survey conducted in 1966 (Appendix..)?...) show that the opinion of primary school pupils towards the technical profession is favourable. However, in the central province, pupils were not inclined towards jobs requiring skilled labour, and were more biased to cleri cal work. The impact of this is not known but judging from the results of one well known secondary school (Fig. 6.1.B) far more pre-engineering pupils were admitted, although their rate of failure was very high. In 1964, 33 pupils were admitted and only 13 passed* The rate of failure of art students was not so high. This trend of having more pre-engineering students than art students continues1at the Kenya Polytechnic when one compares the admission statistics of engineering to commerce students (Fig. 6*1 ,C). At the University however, this trend changes and there are far more art students admitted than engineering students. Lately, the country has shown a trend towards the development of. a number of technical colleges^. These colleges can open a potential method for raising the general technical standard of the nation; and for providing specialists in several fields. source: source: samhuri i b o r m n NO. OF STUDENTS man man COMPARISON OF SUBJECTS COMPARISON EODR SHO : SCHOOL SECONDARY ARTS S TTED E T IT M D A S T N E D U ST S T R A . C . CEC SUET PASSED STUDENTS SCIENCE B. AT SUET PASSED STUDENTS ARTS . D . CEC SUET ADMITTED STUDENTS SCIENCE A. school ,

FIG- 6.I.B.FIG-

A UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI . B KENYA POLYTECHNIC

MIDDLE AND HIGHER EDUCATION ENROLMENT (souflCEtSWTtfTlCM. NBSTftkCT FIG. 6.1 .C, 1-98

Their establishment, however, pose a gigantic admini strative problem*, These colleges must be co-ordinated, and their syllabi and intake controlled in accordance with the national policy of the development of manpower.

6*1,4. Utilization of Engineers

Table 6.1*b* shows the small percentage of engineers which are employed in the metalworking industry. This is due to the lack of opportunities which the industry can offer graduate-engineers* This problem affects even highly industrialised countries as analysed 1 5 by Turner , who suggests some remedies for the British Industry for which a survey in 1968 found 60,000 graduates employed as technicians or technician engineers. The British Industry is large enough to employ, although at a lower grade, such large numbers of graduates. In Kenya, however, the industry is so small that in most instances, situations for engineers do not exist. Such trends and the possibilities of creating better employment opportu nities are discussed in the following paragraphs.

(i) Engineering; Background of Entrepreneurs 1 6 In a survey carried out in India, the number of firms (in a particular category) established by graduate engineers was found to be the highest. Compared with this trend, the situation in Kenya is completely different only one or two firmQ were found to be established and managed by graduate engineers. Small entrepreneurship, therefore, should provide a good opportunity for graduate engineers. (ii) Employment for Engineers

All small and most medium sized establishments cannot afford to employ an engineer and offer him the salary and conditions of service consistent with his profession. The engineers are, therefore, attracted to larger firms where the employment situation is much better. 199

In addition, there are apparently more opportu nities for mechanical engineers in the public sector. This is clear from Table 6.1.a. which shows that 10 engineers were employed by only two establishments* Considering manpower generally, there are more people employed in the public sector. In 1966, for example, the public sector had over 200,000 more employees than 17 the private sector . This in turn creates more posts for higher manpower, including engineers.

(ill) Design and Development

As revealed in Para. 3.4.2. the practice of product design and development is restricted to very few firms* 18 Banjo discusses the role of the design engineer in the development of a country. He points out that the cultural environment of a modern society depends a lot on the activities of the design engineer. In Kenya, the role of such activities ID clear in the structural engineering (building and architecture) sphere. In metal products, however, there is very little manufacturing activity. Hence, opportunities for engineers will be restricted unless manufacturing is expanded.

(iv) Engineering Research

Engineers can be usefully employed in research; but there is no engineering research practice in the industry. 1 9 The suggestion made by Palmer in this connection is worth noting. He suggests that research problems of the industry should be token up by the University which should have the engineers and resources to work on such projects.

(v) Administration and Consultancy 20 In a survey conducted in Britain, it was found that in the British Industry, 29.3?$ of the professional engineers were employed in general technical admini stration and 5.4/S in consultancy. For the Kenyan metal working industry, censuses of engineers working in these roles were not obtained. 200

However, it is known that a number of engineers work as technical administrators, especially in the public sector; and as consultants, especially in the field of civil and structural engineering. With the future development in the metalworking industry, the field of technical administration and consultancy could offer employment opportunities for mechanical engineers.

C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEKDATIONS / 6.1.5. The engineers employed in the metalworking industry represent less than 2Q& of the mechanical engineers in Kenya. The demand for engineers is highest in the large- scale production engineering plants. In 1967, over 90/5 i of all mechanical engineers were found to be non-citizens The main demand for engineers for the next few years will therefore, be created by the process of Kenyanisation. This process should be applied gradually, for otherwise there may be a great shortage of engineers. At the projected rate of growth and Kenyaniaation, the demand for engineers at the end of 1974 may be more than the supply This shortage could be overcome by creating better opportunities for engineers in the metalworking industry and by encouraging professional training in the ' industry. Graduate engineers should be invited and given financial help to take up small entrepreneurships which at present are mainly in the hands of non-citizens, many of whom have a low standard of education. This would uplift the general standard of engineering. As graduate engineers, the entrepreneurs would be well equipped to assist in the training of their apprentices. The introduction and expansion of functions like design, development, research, technical administration and mechanical engineering consultancy should assist in attracting more engineers to the metalworking industry. 201

6»1 .6 lloarly 507$ of the establishments are small entrepreneurships which are either self-managed or have one or two managers. The requirement for managers is mostly felt by large-scale firms, which represent 127$ of the total. As in the case of engineers, most managers are non-citizens and their replacement must follow similar lines as for the former* There are three main training institutions for managers, out of which one wa3 found to be actively engaged in assisting the industry. Large sized firms have resources for training and can, therefore, assist in the development of local managers* 6.1.7. The ratio of technicians to engineers was found to be 1.05:1 * When draughtsmen &tq included, this ratio increases to 1.67:1. Compared with the ratio of 3*0:1 advocated by one authority, the number of technicians employed by the industry is low. There is, therefore, a requirement to fill this gap. jjg.1_p.8-» The percentago of foremen employed in the industry is low. Most foremen are skilled workers. In the medium and large sized firms, there is a larger per centage of clerks. Although clerks are essential to the industry, their numbers could be reduced by giving a few selected clerks technical training. Such tech nical clerks could then hold superviosry positions which require a large amount of technical documentation-.

6.1.9. The greatest demand in the metalworking industry ia for skilled workers. This trend is changing to a small extent by the introduction and expansion of mass- production plants, which are employing large numbers of machine operators. These machine operators are essentially semi-skilled workers but they operate machines which require the repetition of the same function. However, all- the entrepreneurships depend on the industrial- skill of the people of this country. 202

Also, there Is a great demand for specific ski3JLs in the large organisations. Such skills include metal fabrication, structural and plate work. Kenya is in the midst of a training revolution to meet the demand of the industry for skilled workers. The Industrial Training Act stipulates the legal requirements for the training of apprentices. This scheme is based on traditional methods. For a more effective training programme, it should be amended to include job descri ptions of each industry and the period of training should be changed accordingly. About 19# of the establishments had apprentices, most of whom wero not bound in accordance with the above Act, To improve this situation, the National Industrial Vocational Training Centre should establish a class of roving instructors who should be sent out to the industry to assist in the training of apprentices. On-the-job training for small-scale works will only be successful if the general standard of education of the entrepreneurship is improved. This may be achieved by a careful pro cess of Kenyanisaticn and by a broad policy of intro ducing functional literacy.

6»1.10 In basic education, the opinion of primary school pupils show that they favour technical work. In results obtained from a well-established school, pupils taking A-level examinations prefer engineering subjects to arts, although the rate qf failure was observed to be higher amongst those taking engineering subjects. In the University, however, the trend of admission show that far more art students are admitted than engineering students. In 1970, only 181 engineering students joined the University but the number of art students was as high as 593* On the national scale, the intake of students in different faculties should be observed from secondary school onwards and should be'geared to the national manpower requirements. The same objective should be applied in the co-ordination and development of the various technical colleges now being built in this country. CHAPTER VXI

WORKING CONDITIONS

AND

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

----- xXx----- 203

I. WORKING CONDITIONS AND INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

A. THE PRESENT STATS

Information collected on the state of working conditions and industrial safety in the local metal working industry is presented by the following tables:-

Table 7.1.a: Proximity of Industrial Areas to City Centre: Nairobi Table 7.1.b: Proximity of Industrial Areas to City Centre: Mombasa Table 7.1.c: Type of Buildings / Table 7.1 Working Environment */ Fig. 7.1.G : Reportable AccidentsRailway Workshops, Nairobi

AN ANALYSIS: WORKING CONDITIONS AND INDUSTRIAL SAPt/H

7.1.1. Congested State of Industrial Areas

In the main two industrial centres of Kenya (namely llairobi and Mombasa), it was found that there are heavy concentrations of metalworking establishments near the city centres* Such concentrations cause congestion resulting in adverse environmental and working conditions. This situation is primarily caused by the small-scale establishments, as is evident from the frequency distri bution curves, Figs. 7.1.A and 7.1 <>B. The distributions seem to bo "normal” only in the case of medium sized (in llairobi) and large sized firms (in Mombasa). The mean values of the distance from the city centre to the metalworking complex for Nairobi and Mombasa may be computed from Tables 7*1 ca, and 7*1*b., which are tabulated in conjunction with Figs, 7.1 *A and 7.1.B* These values arc:- (a) Nairobi (Table 7.1*a) Mean value = x = t-f_x

=JL2fi!iix 100) 165

■2 . t 5 . 3 . 5 . FREQUENCY CNO. OF FIRMS) RXMT O IDSRA AREAS INDUSTRIAL OF PROXIMITY DISTANCE FROM CITY CENTRE (METRESXIOOO)

PROXIMITY OF INDUSTRIAL AREAS TO CITY CENTRE-MOMBASA

FIG. 7.1. B 206

1 2 3 4 5 6

Dis Mid No. of fx d=(x-x) fd tance* point firms (Class * X (fre (x100) (x100) (x100) Interval) *(x100) quency f

8-16 12 73 876 -13.349 -974.4

16-24 20 16 320 -5.349 -85.6

24-32 28 25 700 2.651 66.2

32-40 36 38 1368 10.651 404.7

40-48 44 0 0 18.651 j 0

48-56 52 0 0 26.651 0

56-64 60 17 * 1020 34.651 589.1

PROXIMITY OF INDUSTRIAL AREAS TO CITY CENTRE: ' NAIROBI

Table 7 •I*a.

- Distance in metres (xlOO) from the city centre, x « 25.349 *(x 100) - See Para. 7.1.1. and Fig. 7.1.A. 207

If all the values in column 6 are taken as positive, £fd = 2120.0 Therefore, Mean Deviation = 2120.0 (x 100)

2 t = 2120.0 (x 100)

1 69 1 fP-54 metres

(b) Momhasa (Table 7.1.b) Mean value = x - y f x

x f = 928 (x 1000) 46 ” 20.173 metres Again, taking positive signs in Column 6, Mean Deviation = 242 (x 1000) 46 -n-. 3.261 metres

The mean values as calculated above give a measure of the congestion of the industrial areas in Hairobi and Mombasa, and show that tho former has metalworking establishments crowded nearer to the city centre than the latter. At present, the situation in the other industrial centres of Kenya is much bettor, although they have a tendency to follow the same trend as found in Hairobi and Mombasa. Although the idea of building industrial estates in Kenya was advocated^ as long ago as 1948, the first estate was built only a few years back. The industrial estate in Nairobi has helped in the dispersion of small sized firms from the areas neighbouring the city centre. 208

1 2 3 4 5 6 c Distance Mid No. of £x d=(x-x) fd (Class point firms (x1C00) (x1COO) .(x1000) Interval) X (fre (x1000) quency) f ■

12-20 16 29 464 -4.173 -121.0

20-28 24 10 240 3.827 38.2

28-36 32 7 224 11.827 82.8

~z£x- 2 X = 72 j&C=46 rifd = o 928 • j

PROXIMITY 0? INDUSTRIAL AREAS TO CITY CENTRE; MOMBASA Table 7.1.b. * Distance in metres (x1000) from the city centre* x = 20.173(*1 000) - See Para. 7.1.1. and Fig. 7.1.B. 209

The upward trend of the curve for small sized firms in Fig. 7*UA. is merely due to the fact that there are seven such establishments in the Nairobi industrial estate. Besides good environment, firms in an industrial estate have other advantages like assistance in the maintenance of plant and in the problems associated with the marketing of the product.

7.1.2. Type of Buildings and Working Environment

Most buildings were found to be unsuitable for engineering work. Table 7.1*c. shows that about 64f° small and 13^ medium si^ed establishments occupy small shops at the basements of multi-storey buildings; others occupy,.sheds, go-downs, garages and so on. The main reason for the use of such buildings is initial low cost. However, as pointed out by Hempel'1, such buildings may be easily available, but in the long run they cost more and prove unsafe. As with other factors, the utilisation of space and illumination improves with the size of the firm (Table 7.1 »d.). Fara. 3.2.1, pointed out the overcrowded situation in several firms which present a hazard to the safety of workers. This is contrary to the Factories Act (Chapter 514, "Laws of Kenya") which specifies 350 cubic feet of space for every person employed not counting space more than 14 ft. from the floor. Most small and some medium scale works would not qualify for this condition. The maintenance of floors in general was observed to be very poor. Cracked floors are common but several un-cemented and a few water-logged floors ■5 were seen. Heinrick states that, "Floors receive less attention with regard to safe and efficient maintenance than any other industrial item of equal cost". This trend is certainly found in several shops in Kenya. The state of illumination shown in Table 7 J .d. is for normal day-light. For night work and dull weather, les3 establishments would qualify for the "good" remark. & Yard & SIZE Well Mot ^ . Basement*’ Shed Shed or Other OP Designed Total Type Confirmed t FIRM Shop

Small 64.0 7.6 15.2 — 6.6 6.6 100 t '

Medium 13.4 11.6 40.2 14.2 17.0 3.6 100 210

Large — - 73.4 13.3 13.3 - 100

TYPE OF BUILDINGS (In per cent of firms)

Table 7,1.c, * Basement of large buildings ** G-odowns, g aragesf etc.: generally unsuitable for metalworking purposes. UT11 i s a t i c :: C? CPAC2 r, X lC.» \

0? P o t ! ( I.’o t P o o r* i Good T o t a l P o o r Good T o t a l j Ccr.dlrzed j j Ccr.dir._cd » IV. | 1 1 I 1 4- - O 1 , 5 3 .5 | 3 4 .0 7.5 : 1CG.C ■ 4G .2 4 4 .3 S .5 1C 3.0 | I ! i ' c i 11 ! 5 3 .4 j 57.1 4 .5 i 1C0.C 3 7 .3 5 6 .3 5 .4 1C 0.0 | 1 ] | \ L o r ;o j * 6 .7 j 3 3 .3 ‘ ^0 * V/ , 1C.0 : C4 -> r. tW | ! | • i

* - c - r - 'r 4 - ' > 212

7.1.3. Accidents and Other Hazards

Statistical figures for accidents were not obtained but Fig. 7»1*C. shows the accident rate of one of the biggest workshops in Kenya, the railway workshops in Nairobi. In the opinion of the Railway's Security and Safety Officer, the rate of accidents was decreasing because of an increase in the general education of the workers. Most firms in Kenya neither have the tradition nor encourage the use of eye protection lenses and goggles. In welding, the welder uses means of eye protection but his helpers and other workers around the area do not wear goggles, The use of welding bays with black en closures is also very limited. The main effect of actinic conjunctivitis ("flash") is described by Kuhn^ who states that exposure to it creates a feeling of sand in the eye. The way welding is carried out in this country many workers must be suffering from this complaint. While means of eye protection are used by welders, it is almost non-existent in machining and forge work. The Factories Act sets down the regulations for industrial health and safety. These regulations are largely generalised. Supplementary regulations should be published to give more details about particular type of work. This may be done through professional bodies. Fire fighting appliances and first aid kits were often not observed. Most firms having such appliances did not seem to pay much attention to their maintenance. Reports indicate that there is a shortage of factory inspectors. From the general standard observed, such reports are apparently correct. There is a require ment for strict inspection procedures in order to improve the working environment. NO. OF ACCIDENTS RAILWAY ACCIDENTS I. 7.I.C. FIG. WORKSHOPS

G. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

jLl Ij’A* A greater number of small and medium sized firms are situated in the congested areas of the main indu strial towns of Kenya, The mean value of the distance from the city centre to the metalworking complex was calculated to he approximately 2,535 metres for Nairobi and 20,173 metres for Mombasa, A similar trend was observed in other towns but due to a lack of industrialisation, the congestion of metalworking establishments is not obvious at present in such towns. In Nairobi, the development of an industrial estate has shown a change in this trend in that some firms have moved to ' a suitable location with a better built environment, In towns, trades like tinsmith may be allowed; while those doing heavier work should move to better sites. The trend with larger firms is generally favourable because they are situated away from congested areas.

Over 6Q/$ of the small and 1C$ of the medium sized firms occupy buildings which are unsuitable for engi neering work* New small-scale entrepreneurship should only be allowed if better accommodation is available, A gradual policy should be adopted by the Inspectorate of Factories to improve the condition cf the existing es t abli s hme nt s. ' Factors like illumination and batter maintenance of floors improve with the size of the firm, although several large-scale firms were found to have poor workin floors, ItL-i* Reports indicate that there is a shortage of factory inspectors. The industry requires qualified inspectors who should help the firms and suggest practical solution to improve the standard of safety. The Factories Act covers most aspects of safety but it needs to be inter preted for different industries. This may be done by professional bodies like the East African Institution of Engineers. CHAPTER VIII

RESUME AND CONCLUSIONS

I. A REVIEW: METALWORKING INDUSTRY

II. ADVISORY SERVICES AND RESEARCH

III. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

-----xXx----- 215

I. A REVIEW: KBTALWORKINS INDUSTRY

8,1>1 * Development

The building of the railways at the beginning of this century resulted in an inflow of a large number of artisans, mostly from India. In due course, some of these artisans started their own samll blacksmith, repair-worlc and carpentry shops. Later, their depe ndants joined them and the process of the introduction of crafts continued. Such small workshops still exist, and they represent about 43/S of the total number of establish ments. In the course of time, several of these work shops were enlarged or amalgamated into larger units, resulting in about 45/^ of firms having between 11 to 50 workers, The contribution of such establishments in terms of tonnage output is small but they present a sector of the industry having the most industrial skills. Also, this sector forms a foundation for entrepreneurship in this country. Industrial surveys generally ignore firms with less than 10 workers. In contrast, it is considered that such firms and the mediimv-sised ones should receive more attention in development plans. Methods should be found to use the principles like those of cottage industry to* enable these firms to make a substantial contribution to the gross national product. Out of the large sized firms (employing over 50 workers), which represent 12?& of the total, 2.0^ are in the public, sector*; 3.2^ have overseas connections and the rest (6.8^)have been developed locally.

8,1,2, Production

The railway’s workshop in Nairobi is still the largest and the best equipped general engineering enterprise in this country,

* East African Community. It has made good progress during the last 70 years, especially in foundry practice and in the design, manufacture and use of jigs and tools. However, it is still not established for the production of items like railway vagons. In 1970, Kenya imported rail way rolling stock worth ££303,000 from countries like Japan and India, Considerable amount of foreign ex change, however, may be saved by manufacturing such items in the railway workshops, which have the re sources and the capacity for this type of production. Great stress is being put on the training of skilled workers and high level manpower. There is a requirement for skilled workers and technicians, but the industry should improve and broaden its outlook in order to employ more engineers. This basically depends on the market which should be expanded both internally and by finding more export channels. The metalworking community will keep on playing the role of repair work and jobbing production, unless the question of the extension of the market is fully exploited, A trend is developing with some small entrepreneur to import automatic production equipment. In order to preserve industrial skills, this should be discouraged Any attempt at large-batch and mass production, should be directed, whenever possible, to the use of conven tional and serai-automatic machinery with a labour- intensive system. The principle of Group Technology (Para. 3*2,2,), for example,, should be considered. This wilX result in creating more opportunities for skilled workers and qualified production engineers.

8r103. Processes and Equipment

Kenya has some mineral wealth in iron ores. These reserves should be exploited and their economic value ascertained. The import of supplementary supply of ore3 from overseas should be considered vrith a view of future export of refined metal. 2 M

A better use of scrap metal should be made. The collection, separation and refining of scrap metal should be undertaken on a larger scale. In this- respect, the electric-arc method of smelting may prove most economical for the production of steel. Although light equipment for machining and welding will keep on playing an important role, a selective amount of heavy engineering processes should be introduced with a view to curtail the . import of certain forms of raw materials. Such processes should include strip and bloom rolling which could locally manufacture sheet-metal and plates from imported and possibly locally produced (by electric-arc furnace, for example) billets. The process of casting is rather crude. There is a requirement for the establishment of a few foundries in each industrial centre. Such foundries may not have ultra-modern equipment, but should incorporate better foundry practice. There is no shortage of craft3 in' this country but this branch of the industry is ailing. To prevent their natural death, national assistance in terms of industrial design and marketing must be given to this section of the industry. The industry is expanding by employing equipment displaced by a few larger organizations. In order to keep pace with modern technology, a certain amount of replacement of equipment i3 necessary. Nearly 55f9 of the main equipment was found *to be over ten years old. If this trend continues, the industry may end up with an out-dated technology.

8.1,4. Manpower

The metalworking industry is small In its size; in its resources; and in the number of people it employs. In the United States of America, one author (Para. 6.1.1(d) considers firms with 100 to 249 workers as small. 2 1 8

In India, firms employing more than fifty and les3 than 250 workers are considered to be medium-scale Few metalworking firms employ as many as three hundred workers in Kenya*. The total employment in. the industry (excluding labourers) was found to be 5,961 which 13 only 7 *25^ of the total industrial employment for the year 19701. The industry is in a transitional stage in that it has attained a good measure of progress in the training of local people* With independence and the policy of Kenyanization, a progressively larger sector of the economy must be placed in the hands of the local people* This is a healthy trend in that it gives a good opportunity for the replacement of entrepreneurs with men of a higher qualification* Thi3 will result in raising the overall standard of the. industry*

8*1*5* Conclusion

The metalworking industry has been fulfilling an essential engineering requirement for the country. Right from the early day3 of development to the intro duction of entrepreneurship3 for the repair of vehicles and agricultural machinery and for the manufacture of small items, lately this need has brought in mass production of containers and wire products and widened the field of structural engineering. For the future development, this need 3ho aid be extended by the examination and improvement of factors like introduction of suitable equipment and technology; the extension of the domestic and export markets; and the training of manpower *

IX, ADVISORY 'AND For the attainment of the aforesaid, national assistance is essential. This fact has been stressed several times in this study. Bodies like the Industrial and Commercial Development Corporation (I.C.D.C.) have made good progress in carrying out feasibility studies and in establishing new projects. However, what is required i's the development and expansion of the existing industry along with the new projects. In this respect, a "technical group" should be introduced in the Ministry of Commerce and Industry. Such a group should have close liaison with the industry, professional engineering bodies and the University. This group should have terms of reference similar to those of the Engineering Croup of■5 the Ministry of Technology in Britain, for which Haddock states2- "The Engineering Croup of the Ministry of Technology is concerned with stimulating technological innovation in industry. This involves surveying the scene, diagnostic steps and actions taken to bring about improvements. Ways have been found to stimulate technological advance in industry without impairing the prerogatives of management".

Ill * FJ'COHHENDAT IONS POE FURTHER WORK

This study has made an attempt to collect infor mation and to draw certain conclusions on the metal working technology of Kenya. The results of this survey, however, may be used for further research work as discussed below, (a) Each chapter of this dissertation may be treated as reference for project ’work for undergraduate students at University level. In this way, further discussion could be invited and more conclusions drown.

(b) A detailed study should be made of the locally- manufactured machine-tools (Para, 1,1*5)* The trends in the manufacture of such machine- tools should be noted and recommendations made for the development of a machine-tool manu facture plant in Kenya. 220

(c) Para. 2.2.2 gives details of a large reserve of iron ore in Kenya* This reserve is said to be uneconomical for iron production because of a high percentage of titanium content. The metal lurgical section of the Department of* Mechanical Engineering of the University of Nairobi should make inquiries and invite research to develop a method to refine this type of ore for the econo mical production of iron and steel.

(d) The polymer or plastic-working industry is developing in Kenya and employs a large number of automatic machines. Inquiries should be made to find out what proportion of manpower and economic benefits this industry will have and at what cost to the metalworking industry. Such studies will help in future development plans*

(e) The type of contribution made to the metalworking industry by the consulting engineers practising in this country was not ascertained. The i^ole of the consulting engineer in the development of the metalworking technology should be investigated in order to make recommendations for a better utili sation of engineers in the industry. A P P E If DJCX

1. EXPLANATION OF TERMS

2. COLLECTION OF DATA

3. MAIN RESULTS OF THE SURVEY (TABLE A)

4. IMPORT OF METALWORKING MACHINERY

5. NET IMPORTS: RAW MATERIALS

6. COMPOSITION OF LOCAL IRON ORES

7. APPROXIMATE CAPITAL COSTS : • STEEL PRODUCTION

8. COST: MATERIALS HANDLING

9. IMPORT RESTRICTIONS

10. PRODUCTION PROGRAMME

11. EXPORTS: 1967 AND 1974

12. 'PREFERRED' JOBS BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORIES AND PROVINCES

13. REFERENCES

■xXx. 221

APPENDIX 1 EXPLANATION OP TERMS

1 • Metalworking Industry (a) Metalworking industry includes:- .

Establishments engaged in the smelting; refining and alloying of ferrous and non-ferrous metals from pig scrap and ore; in the rolling and drawing of ferrous metals; in the manufacture of castings, forgings, and other related products of ferrous and non-ferrous metals; and in the heat treating of steels and non- ferrous metals* Those engaged in the forming and fabrication, of sheet-metal products like tinware, water storage tanks, measuring cans, vehicle bodies and non-electric heating apparatus* Pirns engaged in the machining processes of turning, milling, shaping, planing, grinding, screw cutting and other related methods. Firms using fabrication methods for metal products, including fabricated iron, steel or other metal structu res for bridges, buildings, doors and sections for ships, boats and ferries; and for plate work for the manufacture of steel and aluminium storage tanks for beverages, milk and petroleum products. Establishments manufacturing steel beds; bed springs; furniture; casements of steel and aluminium; aluminium hol'low-ware ana ladders: barbed wire; chain link fencing; wire'mesh; nails; rivets and screws; crown seals; and containers and drums, Those manufacturing pipes, pipe fittings and agricultural implements of ferrous and non-ferrous metals; tea machinery and parts of coffee and dairy equipment; plough frames; wheel-barrows; maize grinding and hammer mills; and parts of cotton ginnery equipment. Manufacturers of sheet-metal products by spinning and pressing; and establishments engaged in the suxv face treating of electroplating, galvanizing, polishing and engraving. 222

Establishments engaged in the repair of the afore said products,

(b) Metalworking industry excludes:- .

Firms primarily engaged in the production of non- netallic articles. The maintenance workshops of such firms are also excluded.

2. Establishment, Firm, Workshop, Works

These terms are interchangeable and denote business, company or partnership primarily engaged in metal working. Each establishment, firm, workshop or works is divided in accordance to its size, namely Small-scale - Employing from 1 to 10 workers;

medium-scale - employing from 11 to 50 workers; large-scale - employing from 51 and over,workers.

3. Table A

References to the main results of the survey are made as Table A. This table appears in Appendix 3» For example, (Table A,I,8) means refer to Table A, Section I, Serial No. 8. J

223

APPENDIX 2

COLLECTION OF DATA

, This study is a part-time project* The author, who is a full-time employee, collected the data in the evenings, on Saturdays and during his leave periods. Due to the large number of smaller works owned by people of a low educational standard, it was decided to carry out a personal survey instead of a postal one. This was an effort and time-con3uning exercise but it resulted in the accummulation of more accurate infor mation. Por larger firms, it became necessary to obtain an appointment. A letter (Appendix 2A) was used for this purpose. Appendix 2B is an example of a typical reply, Por arranging personal interviews, a letter of introduction (Appendix 2C) from the University of Nairobi was used. Regarding the questionnaire, the author learned by experience that a check list (Appendix 2D) along with a pocket-sized notebook proved the best method. The survey wa3 mainly confined to the private sector in the towns known to have engineering establish ments. In addition, a few quasi-G-overnment establish ments were covered, mainly because of their importance in the development of the country. The initial addresses of the firms were obtained from "Index to Manufacturers and Products*', Ministry of Commerce & Industry, 1966* The decision to visit the towns covered by this survey was based on the addresses given in this publication. While conducting the survey the author, however, came accross several firms whose addresses were not listed in the above index. The main interviews were conducted between January 1970 and April 1972. The response from the industry was excellent as only a small percentage of firms refused to give information. Por non-respondents, the main parameters were estimated. 224 APPENDIX 2A

P.O. Box 920.

Hairobi, Kenya*

Bear Sir,

PRODUCTION CAPABILITY AITB HECIIANICAL ENGINEERING POTENTIAL op keiiya I* I am persuing part-time post-graduate study with the Faculty of Engineering, University College, Nairobi. The topic of study is as follows " A Survey of Mechanical Engineering complex of Kenya, with emphasis on production, equipment, process and roan-power"* 2* With this object in view, I would be much obliged to you if you could allow roc to visit your Works and gain information. 3. As it is a part-time study, I am only available on certain Wednesday afternoons, Saturdays, and after 16.30 hours on week-days* I would be most grateful if you could indicate on the enclosed "stamped" card, a time and dato when I could visit your firro. 4* Thanking you in advance for any assistance which you may be able to afford me.

|V|

(M.A. Khan) B.Sc (Eng); AMSLAET. APPENDIX LB

INDUSTRIAL PLANT (E.A.) LTD.

D >ECTO *V FOSTAL ADDRESS TELEPHONE; 33741 v. h FA h *ENHOLTZ (D tn ih ) P.O. B O X 4717, NAIROBI l»Q N U AK£»HtElM (S*((iiiS) K E N Y A CABLES : AZRA A. 1 AHVEEOT MOLlERUB (OinnS) EAST AFRICA TELEX No. : *20131 O lH $ S ' • i m m • E *. B'.OCX (B /.w h ) National 4 GRinOiat* Sawic L*0

TCUR BEE: OUR KEF: DJG/07/1012G. DATE; 28th A u ^ U S t , 1970

Kr, H.A. Khnn, ?.0. Box 920, r! A I ? 0 11 I,

Boar I'r. Khan, He* Production Capability and TTechanical Pnyinceriny Potential of Kenya, V/c aeknov/ledye receipt of your letter of 24th August, 1970, and would a ok you to nuke it any afternoon convenient to your studios. If you will telephone the Production I'enarer (l.r. H. Board) a day or so ahead rivinn an indication what tine you will arrive.

Yours faithfully. for I1IDU397.IAI. PLA:;i (chi; II;"liBD.

l-EM-HFt CF THE ASSOCIATION O f EAST AFRICAN INDUSTRIES C ? ;( '^ ;,' pcoF s -;.‘- - is 3i> ?EC‘,r .'* c-i feersr: KINGSTON RQ. INDUSTR.A; A^fA. NAlJlOJI APPENDIX 2C

UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI d epa rtm en t o f m echanical engineering Telegram*: "Varsity'' Nairobi P.O. BOX 30197. Telephone: Nairobi 274 41 NAIROBI PROFESSOR W. B, P A L M E R , M.A , Ph.O. K E N Y A , C. En£., FEAIE, F.I.Mech, E„ N, Inst. N.C.

Y O U R R E F : o u r r e f : January ,1970

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

This is to certify that Mr* H. A* Khan has registered for hin M,Sc* Engineering Degree on this department and he has been allocated a thesis on "A Survey of Mechanical Engineering Technology and Potential in Kenya"• In this capacity, he has to visit several workshops in this field and make enquires needed for his survey. Any help from your side in this respect would be highly appreciated*

Dr0 A. A, Hrabovec 227

APPENDIX 2D CHECK LIST

Established Building, area Management Manpower Employment System Training Equipment Processes Materials Production Rates Products Layout Planning

CARD :__ FRONT

Materials Handling Costing Estimating Quality Control Metric System • Materials Testing ■ Drawing Office Tools and Tooling Standards Welding Rods Machine Maintenance Work Study Power Consumption

CARD : REVERSE APPENDIX 5

MAIN RESULTS OF A__ SURVEY

OF THE

KENYAN METALWORKING INDUSTRY

TABLE A ‘228 '7

I TABES A NOTES ON READING THE TABLE

/ 1 . Table A mainly contains quantitative information. It is divided into four part3. Each metalworking firm from which data was obtained appears against a serial number in Part A/' Further information on any particular firm nay be found against the same serial number in Part B (Main Equipment); Fart G (Production Engineering) and/or Part D (Manpower . and Working Conditions).

2, In each par'fc,the data is divided according to the size of establishments, i.e. I: Small; II: Medium; and III: Large-scale.

3 . hevend

COLUMN 1 SYMBOL 1 MEANING ; \ _ , i Affirmative but quantity not 1 y t , confirmed.

- i X N o ; n i l ; ne gat ive.

- - Hot known or not applicable. - 0 Quantity counted elsewhere.

PART B QUANTITY OF MAIN EQUIPMENT ' i 1 N0 ' Serial number as allocated in Part A*

2 L Lathe machines: all types. \

\ 3 S Shapers: all types.

j 4 D Drill machines: bench and pillar

5 a Grinders: all types*

6 M Milling machines: all types.

7 GT Guillotines and Shears: manual s and powered. : ______2'29

8 R Bending Rollers: manual and powered

9 W Electric Metal-arc welding units.

10 . G Oxy-acetylene and gas-shielded Welding Units.

11 SM Smiths hearths and foundries as indicated.

12 P Powered and manual presses.

15 F Powered and manual Bending and Folding machines.

14 H Powered circular, band and hack- saws •

15 3.T. Special Production Equipment (roiling mills; wire drawing,etc).

PART C ELEMENTS OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

1 No. Serial number as allocated in Part

2 Processes (prindipal process prac tised)

M Machining

F Forming

FB Fabrication

G Casting

?R Forging

0 Others(electroplating and heat treatment)♦

3 Type of production

0 Jobbing

B Batch production

M Mass production 250

4 P Production planning

C Production control • EN Undertaken by the entrepreneur

W Left to a worker

M Undertaken by a manager

F Undertaken by a foreman

T Undertaken by a technician

I Undertaken by inspectors

0 Based on orders only

5 L Type of Layout

M Mixed

B Bays

K Heavy

G Grouped

L Line

0 Others

6 D Drawing Office

t Drawing table only

7 M Type of ravr material used 1 Steel only, normally mild steel

2 Steel and non-ferrous metal alloys like aluminium

3 3teel and cast iron and a snail percentage of non-ferrous metal alloys

4 Non-ferrous metals only as used in electroplating

6 Q Normal capacity output per month (Kgms) 2?1

A Up to 1,000 Kgm.

B 1,000 to 2,000 Kgm.

C 2,000 to 4,000 Kgm.

D 4,000 to 5,000 Kgm.

E 5,000 to 10,000 Kgm.

F ’ Up to 50,000 Kgm.

Q Over 50,000 Kgm.

9 H Materials handling devices: all types.

10 P' Main services and products a Grills; gates; and other forged items.

b Bus and coach bodies.

c Cans and drums

d Metal beds; bed springs and other metal furniture. // e Electroplating / / f Fabricated structures, frames.

g Castings m Casements

P Agricultural engineering products.

r Hot rolling of rods and bars.

s Engineering services like grinding small-scale welding for repairs and occasional manufacture of an • item.

S A wide variety of engineering services and some manufacture, including production of iron. 2;$2

t Manufacture of items from sheet- netal, tinplate and heavy gauge plate* 11 m Change to the Metric*System of Measurement. T Transitional stage.

PART D QUANTITY OP MANPOWER AND WORKING CONDITIONS

1 No. Serial number as allocated in Part A. 2 M Managers C Clerical workers 3 ■ s Qualified engineers D Draughtsmen 4 EN Entrepreneurs (skilled owner- managers) 5 T Technicians 6 S Skilled workers 7 ss Semi-skilled workers 8 L Labourers; unskilled workers 9 C Machine operators - generally auto matic machines 10 F Foremen 11 A Apprentices 12 T . Methods of Trainings- 0 On-the-job 13 Working Conditions:- 3 Utilization of space I Intensity of illumination)

G Good P Poor (congested, bad illumination) T Type of Building:- B Basements D Type of accommodation generally used by small-scale consumer goods* traders 2d3

V Well-designed workshop S Shed Y Yard with a shed or shop, generally well designed J, » V .

2 3 4

NO NAME OP ESTABLISHMENT ADDRESS

I. Small-Scale Establishments (a) Nairobi • 1 Abdullah's Blacksmith ' Varma Road 2 Allied Enterprise Enterprise Road 5 All Round Engineers Ring Road • 4 Arrow Engineering & V/elding Works Newark Road 5 Bansal Engineering Works Kirinyaga Road 6 Battan Engineering Works Battersea Road 7 Blacksmith Khan Road 8 Blacksmith Virjee Road 9 Bunyala Engineering Works Industrial Estate 10 Charger Engineers Cross Road 11 City Blacksmith Bengal Road 12 Cloth Clip Manufacturers Industrial Estate 13 Eastern Metal V/orks Newark Road U G.S. Engineering Works Bengal Road 15 Gurdial Engineering Works Kirinyaga Road 16 Guru Mechanical Engineers Kirinyaga Road 17 Hamid Vali Mohamed Tom Mboya Street 18 Harnam Engineering Works Kirinyaga Road 19 Ideal Steel V/orks Kirinyaga Road 20 Iron Craft Virjee Road 21 Iron Decor & Engineering Newark Road 22 Ismail Ahmed Kirinyaga Road 23 J.K. Kavia Bros. Kalot Road 24 J.H. Engineering Works-. Pakpattan Road 25 J.N. Kavia Newark Road . 26 J.3. Matharu & Sons Kirinyaga Road 27 Juttala & Son3 New Pumwani Road 28 K. Ravji & Sons Bengal Road

NAMES AND__ADDRESSES TABLE A: PART A 255

29 Karatina Wire Manufacturers Industrial Estate

50 Kartar Singh Newark Hoad

31 Kav.ia Engineering Works Bengal Hoad

32 Kav.ia Iron & Steel Works Bengal Hoad

33 Kenya Gas Services Company Kirinyaga Road

34 K.Y.G. Mechanical Engineers Tamvorth Road

35 K.K.V. Engineering Industry Industrial Estate

36 London Furniture Company Rehmatullah Road

37 Machineways Virjee Road

38 Magre Metal Work3 Port Hall Road

39 Maraj Din & Sons Rehmatullah Road

40 Masacau Industries Limited Industrial Estate

41 Metal Equipment Company Kirinyaga Road

42 Modern Engineering Works Gurdwara Road

43 Mohan Singh & Bros. Bengal Road

44 Muchatha Tinsmiths Park Road

45 Mudher Engineering Works Tamworth Road

46 Mughal & Company Tamworth Road

47 Mutlashi Engineering Works Kirinyaga Road

48 Mutiti & Bros* Newark Road

49 Nairobi African Tinsmith &

Blacksmith Co-op. Society New Pumwani Road

50 Nairobi Mechanical Engineers Bengal Road

51 Nairobi Shaft Grinders Bengal Road

52 Nazar Singh & Bros. New Pumwani Road

53 Neptune Industry Industrial Estate j, : • i. 236

54 Noorbhai Alibhai & Company Burton Road

55. Pigeon Slide Works Industrial Estate

56 Raaji Lada & Company Varma Road

57 Saddal Engineering Works Khan Road

*58 Sagoo Trunk Works Tom Mboya Street

59 Sehmi General Engineering Co Bengal Road

60 Shanti Lai Varma Road

61* Sohan Singh Joshi & Sons Bengal Road

62 Steel & Metal Works Bengal Road

63 Super Body Builders Burnley Road

64 Super Engineering Works Kirinyaga Road '

65 Super Plumbing Kirinyaga Road

66 Thakarbhai Panjal & Company Kirinyaga Road

67 Tinsmiths (Six small esta-

blishments) Kirinyaga Road ■

63 Tinsmith Park Road

69 United Metal Works Kirinyaga Road

70 Vekaria Engineering Works Bengal Road

71 Win & Company New Pumwani Road

(b) Mombasa ;

72 Aboo*s Engineering &

Welding V/orks Pandya Road

73 Blacksmith Govind Liwatoni Road

74 Clyde Engineering V/orks Pandya Road

75 Coast Tinsmith Liwatoni Road J, . » 237

76 Coronate Grinding Works LivatonI Road

77 Dada General Workshop A. Visram Road • 78 Haraka Engineering Works Livatoni Road

79 Jai Engineering Works livatoni Road

80 Juneja Engineering Works Liwatoni Road

81 Latif Woodworks (Steel

Section) Razarali Street

82 Metal Fabricators &

Refrigeration Limited Sheriff Bhai St,

83 Micro Engineering Works Joinery Street

84 Mombasa Tinsmiths Mwatoni Road

35 Mombasa Welding & Engi- neering Works Pandya Road

86 Rational Engineering Works Joinery Road » 87 Kichrome Electroplating Works Miritini

88 • O.K. Engineers Liwatoni Road

89 Station Engineering Works Kazerali Street

90 Universal Steel Workers Pandya Road

91 Yousafi Trunk Works Jomo Kenyatta' Road

92 Amar Engineering Works Junction Road

93 Chohan Engineering Works Makasembo Road

94 Eagle Engineering Works Obote Road

95 Kisumu Tinsmiths Obote Road

96 M&gan Engineering Works Obote Road

97 Re^pid Engineering Works Makasembo Road

98 S.S. Rupera Obote Road 99 Shaker Bros, Obote Road 238

(d) Nakuru

100 Agrimacfil Service Industrial Area

101 Farmers Engineering Works Kufanya Road

102 Suberwal Engineering Works Kufanya Road

(e) Eldoret

103 Best Engineering Works Uganda Road

(f) Kitale

104 Kitale Tinsmiths

105 Western Garage & Engineering C. Elgon Road

(k ) Thika

106 Punjab Engineering Works Garage Road

*107 Thika General Workshop Workshop Road

(h) Naivasha

108 Mehbub Alam Naivasha

II, Medium-Scale Establish- ments ,

(a) Nairobi

1 African Bodybuilders . Newark Road

2 African Radiators Doncaster Road

3 Alif Din & Sons Varna Road

4 Bachu Engineering Works Battersea Road

5. Bir Singh Atma Singh London. Road

6 Booth Manufacturing Company Kilmarnock Road

7 Brett & Company Limited Leeds Road 8 Burns & Blane (Kenya) Ltd. Kingston Road

9 Burns & Blane (Kenya) Ltd. Kingston Road

10 Cassini & Tonolo Limited Belfast Road

11 Central Workshop Limited Jarrow Road

12 Choda Bros. Enterprise Road

13 City Engineering Works Bristol Road

14 Construction Equipment Woolwich Road

15 Continental Engineering Ltd. Burton Road

16 Cottongton & Partners Saldhana Road

17 Crown Cork Co*.(E.A.) Ltd. Falkirk Road

18 Darshan Singh & Company Kirinyaga Road

19 Dawning Africano Enter prises Industrial Estate

*20 Dhiman & Sons Dudley Road

21 Dominion Engineering Works Bristol Road

22 East African Engineering Works Doncaster Road

23 E.A. Foundry Works Bristol Road

24 E.A. Hydraulic & Metal Industries Darlington Road

25 E.A. Metal Works Coventry Road

26 E.A. Oxygen Limited Kilmarnock Road

27 Eastern Engineering Works Enterprise Road

28 Electroplating Limited Enterprise Road

29 Empire Engineering Works Doncaster Road

30 European Engineering Workshop Darlington Road j. 240

31 General Engineering Workshop Enterprise Road

32 General Engineering Works Limited Shoreditch Road

33 Ghelani Industries (Wires) Limited Huddersfield Road

34 Hari Singh & Company Limited Coventry Road

35 H.R* Owen Darlington Road

36 Hughes Ltd. (Grinding Machine Shop) Dagenham Road

37 Hughes Ltd. (Plough Section) Dagenham Road

38 Hydro Engineers Burton Road

39 Ideal Steel Fabricators Burton Road

40 Jagat Singh & Sons Ltd. Enterprise Road

41 Jagjivan Hirji & Bros, Shoreditch Road

42 James Warren & Co(Africa) Limited .Ruaraka

43 Jandu Workshop Burnley Road

44 J.M. Bosh Engineering Works Jeevanjee Road

45 J.S. Davis & Co. Falkirk Road

46 Karaal Engineering Works Coventry Road

47 Kehar Singh & Co, Ltd. Buckleys Road

43 Kenya Box-Body Builders Virjee Road

49 Kenya Engineering Industries Ludlow Road

50 Kenya Steel Fabricators Bristol Road

51 Leading Engineering Works Dagenham Road

52 Lotus Engineering Works New Pumwani Road 55 Kalmont Electroplating Co. Buckleys Road.

54 Mangal Singh. & Sons Commercial Street

55 Mann Manufacturing Co. Ltd* Battersea Road

56 Marshall Fowler (Engineers) Limited Palkirk Road

57 Mars, Mechanical Engineers Camberwell Road

58 Metal Pressings Limited Industrial Estate

59 Metco Battersea Road

60 Morman Engineering Works Swindon Road

61 Morris & Company Limited Ashton Road

62 Mughal Engineering Works Newark Road

63 Kalin Nail V/orks London Road

64 Najam-ud-Din' & Sons Birmingham Road

65 Nanji Jairam & Company Newark Road

66 Pier Point Engineers Doncaster Road

*67 Precision Industries (Africa) Limited Enterprise Road

68 Premier Engineers & Manu facturers Burnley Road

69 Easheed .Bros* Cardiff Road

70 R '& G Engineering Co. Battersea Road

71 Rubani Engineering Works Enterprise Road

72 Sarwan Singh Bansal Burton Road

73 Sehmi Engineering Works Newark Road

74 Sihra Engineering Works Virjee Road •

75 Steel Wool Limited Shoreditch Road

76 Technova Limited Poplar Road

77 Universal Metal Enterprises Belfast Road 242

78 Wall Mohamed & Co, Dandee Road

79 Wigglesworth (Kenya) Ltd. Kingston Road

80 Wire Products Limited Enterprise Road

81 Yousaf Joiner Works Bengal Road

82 Yusuf Garage Limited Pakpattan Road

(b) Mombasa

83 Asodia Steel Fabricators Pandya Road

84 Betacans Limited Refinery Street

85 Chandaria Industries Ltd. Magongo Road / (Wire Section) 86 ' Cycle Industry (FJl) Ltd. Joinery Street

87 Brumeon Limited

88 E.A. Motor Industry Ltd. Kwa Shibu Road

89 E.A, Railways Corporation (Machine shop only) Station Road

SO* Hirani Manufacturers Workshop Road

91 Kenya Shell Limited (Can factory) Makande Road

92 Kenya United Steel Co. Ltd. (Kail factory) Hull Street , A 93 Kenya United Steel Co. Ltd. (V/ire factory) Newcastle Road

94 Marino Engineering Works Pandya Road

95 Metro; Engineering Works Liwatoni Hoad

96 Motherstar Engineering Works London Road

97 Narshidas & Company Seyyid Said St. ■J. . • 4. '243

98 Charan Singh Bhamra Makasembo Road

99 Kisumu Engineering Works Obote'Road

100 Mangal Singh Engineering Works Mackinnon Street

*101 Nyanza Containers Mackinnon Street

102 Nyanza Engineering Works Obate Road

103 Paramount Engineering Works Obote Road

104 Reliance Engineering Works Mumias Road

(d ) Nakuru

105 Rift Valley Engineering Works Industrial Area

106 Settler Engineering Works Industrial Area

(e) Eldoret

107 Kalsi Engineering Work3 Industrial Area

108 Panesar Engineering Works Birmingham Road

109 Singh Engineering Works Northey Street no Sihra Engineering Works Birmingham Road

(£) Kitala

m Elgon Engineering Works Industrial Area 112 Suan Engineering Works, Industrial Area

III. Large-Scale Esta blishments

(a) Nairobi

1 A* J* Main & Co. Ltd Enterprise Road J, •> 244

2 E.A. Airways Corporation (Metalworking Shops) Embakasi

3 E.A, Railways Chief Civil Workshop Road Engineering Workshops Enterprise Road

4 E.A. Railways Chief Mecha- t nical Engineer's Workshop Workshop Road

* 5 EMCQ Steel Works (Kenya) Ltd. Dandora

6 Harrtz & Bell Limited Workshop Road

7 Heat Exchangers Limited Kilmarnock Road

8 H. Young & Co, Ltd. Falkirk Road

9 Industrial Plant Limited Kingston Road

10 Ideal Casement (EA) Ltd. London Road

11 L.S. Harnam Singh Ltd. Aberdeen Road

12 Mabati Limited Oldham Road

13 Mecol Limited Commercial Street

U Metal Box Company of Kenya Limited Newcastle Road

15 Nanak Bodybuilders Doncaster Road

18 Steel Rolling Mills Ltd. Kikuyu

(b) Mombasa ■

17 African Marine & General Engineering Co. Ltd. langana Road

18 E.A. Harbours Corporation Port Workshops Kilindini Harbour

19 H. Suleman, H.L. & Sons London Road

20 : Kaluworks Limited Whitehouse Road

*21 Kenya Bolts & Nuts Manu facturing Co. Limited ICahawa Road

22 Kenya Casements Limited Shimanzi Road

23 Kenya United Steel Co. (Rolling Mill) Miritini j, » 4. 245

24 Metal Containers Limited Glasgow Street

25 Southern Engineering Co.Ltd. Mbaraki*

26 Steel Africa Limited Refinery Road

27 SCOEE (EA) Limited Magongo Road

28 E.A, Railways Corporation, Marine Section

(d) Thika

29 Metal Box Company Thika

(e) G i l S i l * 30 Kdume Limited Gilgil I

* Establishments not visited but information obtained from other sources, 246

i 1 3 FT 5 7 ! 8 9 ! 10; 11 12 H i 2 t 6 13 15 I - No. s D G M GT g ! l R w l i: SM P F H S.T.j 1 i j I ♦ , I. Small-Scale Establishments t I i i (a) Nairobi i jI l 1 1 2 2 X X ; x ; X 1 X X 1 X M i 2 i * 2 I X X 2 X X 1 2 ' X X X X X x 1 x i 3 11 x 1 4 X X ■ X X ; X X; 1 X X X i 4 1 x 1 X X : 1 3 i X 1 | 1 X 1 x i x I i 5 1 X 1 1i x X X 1 X X i 1 x i x 1 I 6 1 X 1 1 X X : x x | X 1 1 X X 1 i I 7 X X 1 X X X i x 1 ; x 1 X X i i i x * I 8 X X X X X j X 1 X 1 X X X x I! 1 1 I 1 9 X X 2 X X 1 2 1 X X 2 X ! 1 x i p 10 ■ 1 X 2 1 X . X i X 1 X X 1 X | I 2 x 11 X X 1 1 X X X x X 1 X X X X 1 : 12 1 X 1 _ _ 1 y , I X lx 12 2 X 2 ■- X 4 X X X 1 x ; 13 I ? * i 6 ; x X 2 X X : X 1 X X X 1 X f ; x i 14 i X ; x : 1 X X 2 X X 1 X X X 1! 15 3 X -

16 4 X 4 4 X X X X X X X X x * ■ 17 2 ;x ;1 2 X X X 1 1 1® X X X X \ I x I 18 4 X 1 2 X X X : 2 1 X X X X

■ 19 2 ;x ' X 1 X X X ! 2 2 1 2 1 1 X i

20 X :x 1 X X 1 X 5 1 1 X X i i X i i i 21 1 ‘ X i1 1 X 1 x! 1 X 1 1 X X 1 i '\ t 22 X ‘X I1 1 1 x | 2 X 1 X X . X ■— ------. — *j QUANTITY OF MAIN EQUIPMENT TABLE A: PART B 247

Ho. L S D G M 0? R V/ G SM p F H S.T.

23 X X 1 2 X X X 1 X 1 X X X X

24 2 X 2 X X 1 X 2 X X X X X . X

25 X X 1 3 X 1 '1 5 1 1 X X X X

26 X X 2 X X X X 2 X X X 1 1 X

27 X X 1 1 X X X 3 X X X X X X

28 X X 1 2 X 1 X 2 X 1 X X X X 29 •- 1 - y

30 X X y 3 X 1 X 3 1 1 X X 1 X

31 X X 1 1 X 1 X 5 X 1 1 X. 1 X

32 X 1 1 X 1 X 1 X 1 X X X X / /lx

33 1 X 2 2 X 1 X 2 1 X X 1 X X

34 X X 1 X X 1 X 2 X 1 X X X X

35 X X X 2 X 2 X 4 X X X X 1 X

36 1. X 1 X X X X X X X 3 X X y

37 1 1 2 1 X 1 1 2 4 X 1 1 1 X

38 3 X 1 1 X 1 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 X

39 X X X 1 X 4 1 2 3 X X 1 X V

40 X X X 2 X 1 X 2 2 X X X 1 X

41 1 X 1 2 X 1 X 1 ' 1 X 1 1 X X

42 X X 1 1 X 3 X 1 X 1 1 X X X

43 X X 1 1 X X X X 1 1 X X X X

44 X X y 1 X X 1 1 X X X X X X A 45 3 X 1 1 X X X 2 X X X X X X

46 2 X 1 2 1 2 X 1 X 2 X X 1 X

47 2 X 1 1 X X X 2 X X X 1 1 X

48 X X 1 1 X 1 1 1 X 1 X 1 X X

49 X X 1 1 X 2 1 2 2 1 X 1 X X

50 3 X 1 3 1 . x X X X X X X X X 248

H o . L S D G M GT R w G SM p F H S.T.

51 5 X 1 5 X X X 1 1 X 1 X ■ X X • 52 1 X 2 1 X X X X X 1 X 1 X

55 y

54 1 X 1 1 X 4 5 1 X -X 8 2 X X

55 y

56 X X 1 1 X 2 X 5 XL 1 X X X X

57 X X 1 1 X 2 X 2 X 1 X X X X

58 X X 1 1 X 5 1 1 1 X X 1 X X

59 2 X 1 4 X X X 1 1 1 1 X X X / 60 / / X X 1 1 X X X 1 X 1 X X X X

61 5 X 1 9 X X X 1 X X 1 X X X

62 X X 2 X X y X 5 1 1 X 1 1 X

65 X X 1 1 X 1 X 5 1 X X X X X

64 1 X 1 1 X i X y X t X X X X

65 X X 1 X X 2 X y 1 X X 1 X X

66 X X 1 1 X X X 1 1 1 X X X X

67 X X 2 y X 5 X 2 X X X y X X

68 X X 1 - X X X X X X X X X X X

69 X X 1 1 X 1 1 2 ' X X X 2 X X

70 1 X 1 1 X 1 X 7 X 1 2 X y X

71 X X X X X X 1 1 X 1 X X X X

0 > ) Mombasa

72 X X 1 X X X X 1 X X X X X X

75 X X X X X 1 X 2 X 1 X X X X

74 1 X 1 1 X y X 2 X X X X 1 X

75 X X X X X X . X 1 X t X 1 X X

76' 2 X 2 y X X X X X X X X X • X J,

249

n o L s D G M GT R W G SM p F H S.T.

77 4 1 y 1 1 2 1 1 , X 1 - 2 1 X

78 - X 1 X X 1 X 2 X X X 1 X X

79 X X 1 1 X X X 2 X X X X X X

80 1 X y 3 X X X 1 1 X X X X X

81 1 X 1 X X X X 2 X X X 1 1 X

82 X X 1 X X X 1 X X 1 X X X X

83 2 X 1 1 1 X X 1 1 1 X X 1 X

84 1 X y 1 X 2 1 2 1 1 2 X X X

85 2 X 1 1 X 2 X 2 2 X X X X X

86 X X 1 X X 1 2 X X 1 . X X 1 X

87 y

88 2 1 • 1 1 X X X 2 X 1 X X 1 X

89 2 1 i 1 X X X 2 1 1 1 X X X

90 1 X 1 y X 1 X 2 1 X X X 1 X V 91 X X 1 1 X 1 X X X X 1 X X

92 5 2 1 5 X X X 1 X X 1 X X X

93 2 1 1 1 X X X 2 X 1 X X X X

94 1 1 2 1 1 X X X X X X X X X

95 X X 1 X X 1 2 X X 1 X 1 X X

96 X X 2 1 X X X 2 1 1 X X X X

97 1 1 X 1 X X X 2 X 1 X X X X

98 X X 1 X X 1 X 1 X 1 X X X X

99 X X 1 X X 1 1 1 X 1 X 1 X X

(a) Nakuru

100 X x y 3 X X X 2 X 1 1 X . X X

101 1 X 1 1 X X X 1 1 X X X X X 250

No 1 S D G M GT R W a SM p P H S.T.

102 2 1 y 2 X X X 1 1 X 1 X X X

(e) Eldoret ♦

103 1 X y 3 X X X X X X 1 X X X

(£) Kitale

104 X X X X X y 2 X X X X X X X

105 3 X 1 1 X 1 X 7 X 1 2 X y X

(«> Thika

106 4 . 1 1 1 1 X X 4 2 1 X X 1 X

107 */ X 1 1 X 1 1 2 2 - - - - -

(h) Naivasha

108 X X 1 1 X 1 1 2 1 X X X X X

II. Middle(-Scale Establishments

( a ) Nairobi

1 X X 2 1 X 1 X 6 1 X X X X X

2 X X X X X 1 X 1 1 y 1 X X y

3 1 X 2 2 X 2 X 2 1 1 1 1 1 X

4 3 1 ; 2 -2 X 2 2 8 2 1 1 1 X X

5 5 1 3 2 X 2 1 6 2 y 1 X 1 X

6 X X 2 1 X X X 1 X X 1 1 4 X

7 X X 1 1 X 3 1 6 1 1 1 V 3 X

8 5 1 3 2 1 1 X 3 4 1 7 1 X X

9 4 X 4 2 X 1 1 27 4 1 X 2 X X

V 10 X X 3 1 3 1 1 10 J k y X I 1 X

11 X X 1 2 X 2 X 7 12 X 2 X X X

12 X X X 1 X 1 . — 6 X X . 3 X 1 X f

251 CO No 1 S D G M GT R w G p p H S.T

13 13 2 6 5 2 — 5 10 2 2 15 - 2 X « U 2 X 4 3 1 1 X 6 y y X X X y

15 8 2 3 3 2 3 - 20 3 1 3 5 2 X

16 4 1 2 2 X X 1 J 2 1 1 X 2 X

17 X 1 1 X X X 1 1 - - - - y

18 6 1 4 2 1 1 X 10 2 1 X X 2 X 19 y

20 4 1 X 3 1 X X 12 2 1 X X X X

21 3 2 X 2 X X X 1 1 X 2 X 3 X

22 6 1 3 3 1 4 3 7 1 X 1 6 4 y

23 1 X X 1 X X X X X 1® X X X X 2@ 24 5 1 4 5 1 1 X 7 2 X 1 1 X

25 2 X 2 2 1 3 8 4 X X 5 4 X X

26 2 X 1 X 1 X X X X X - 1 2 y

27 6 1 3 3 1 4 3 7 1 X 1 6 4 X

28 - - - 4 ------X y

29 3 X 1 3 1 X X 2 1 2* 1 X 1 X

30 8 2 2 -3 3 X X 2 1 1 1 X 6 X

31 X X 2 2 X 1 X 16 X X 2 4 3 X

32-. 7 2 2 3 1 - - 2 1 - * - - 2 X

33 2 X 1 1 X X X 1 1 1 12 - - y

34 6 1 4 5 2 2 1 10 5 2 1 X 1 X

35 X X 1 2 X 2 X 2 1 X 1 1 X X

36 2 X 2 5 X X X X X X y X X X

37 1 X 1 X X X X 1 X 1 y X 1 X

38 2 1 1 2 X X . X 2 1 2 1 X 1 X

39 X X 1 1 X 2 X 6 X X X 1 1 X •

40 X X X 2 X 1 1 8 X X y X 1 X J. ; • ' 252

No L S D G M GT R w G SM p F H S.T.

41 3 1 2 2 X 2 1 3 X 1 i X i : X

42 1 . X 2 2 X 2 3 5 2 1 1 . 3 3 X

43 9 1 4 6 X X 1 5 y 2 X X 1 X

44 2 X X 3 X X X 2 1 X 1 X 1 X

45 2 1 1 X X X X 1 1 X X X 1 X

46 1 X 1 1 X 1 X 5 y y X X X X

47 X X 2 2 X X X 9 X 1 1 X 1 X

48 X X 1 2 X 2 X 3 X X X X X X

49 3 X 9 13 4 X 1 1 X 1 18 X X 2

50 7 1 4 X X 1 4 22 3 2 2 1 2 X

51 8 2 4 4 1 2 X 8 2 X y X 2 X

52 3 1 1 1 X X 1 3 1 X X X 1 X

53 X X X 4 X X X X 1 y X X X y

54 X X 2 2 X 2 X 9 2 y 1 1 X X

55 2 X 4 2 X 2 2 8 3 X 3 y y X

56 X X 1 2 X X X 3 X X X X 1 X

57 3 1 1 1 X 2 X 2 2 y 1 X 1 X

58 X X 1 X X X X X X X 3 X X y

59 X X 1 2 X 3 1 2 1 X - 1 1 ' X

60 X X 1 1 X X X 5 X X X X 1 X

61 X X 1 X X 2 X 6 1 X X 5 2 y

62 5 2 2 3 X X 1 8 X y X X 1 X '

63 2 1 3 1 X X 2 1 y 2 X 2 X

64 X X 1 2 X 4 y 1 X y X X X X

65 1 1 X 3 X 6 1 5 1 X 9 2 1 X

66 4 X 2 2 X 1 X 2 X y X X 1 X

67 — - - y 253

o m No L S D G M GT R W G *Jl’l ‘ P P H W • X •

68 (2) 1 2 1 1 X X 1 X X 5 X (2) X 69 X X 3 2 X 2 4 1 1 1 , x . y . 1 X TO 1 X 1 1 - 2 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 X

71 5 1 2 2 1 1 - 1 - 2 2 1 - X

72 X X y 1 X X X 12 3 X 1 1 J X

73 7 X 2 3 1 X X 1 1 X X X 1 X

74 5 1 2 2 X 1 X 3 1 y X X X X 75 X X X 1 X X X X X X X X X y 76 X X 1 1 X X X 6 X X 2 X 1 X 77 J X X X X 1 6 X X y 78 5 1 X 1 X X 2 1 2 1 2 1 X X

79 1 X 3 4 X 1 X 2 2 y X y 1 V 80 2 1 1 1 X X X X 1 y 2 X X X 01 X 2 1 X 1 y 3 X y X 1 X X 02 4 X 6 6 X X 2 1 X y 2 X 2 X 00i Mombasa 03 X X 1 1 2 2 X 6 2 X 1 X 1 X 84 X I X X X X X 1 X X ■v X X y 85 X X X 1 X X 1 X X X X X ' y 86 X X X X X X X X X 1 X 1 X y 07 X X X X X X X 1 1 X X X X y 88 1 X 1 X X 1 1 X X X 3 X 1 X

09 3 1 2 1 X X X X X X ■ X X X X 90 - y 91 2 X 2 2 1 3 X X X X (12) X 1 y 92 3 2 2 y X - - 3 y X 18 y 1 y

93 (3) (2) (3 (4) X — . - (3) y (2) X y (1) y 254

No L S D G H G2 R G SM p p H S.T.

94 4 1 1 1 1 X X 3 2 1 X X X X

95 4 1 2 4 X 1 X 6 5 2 X. 2 1 X

96 8 3 3 5 1 3 2 19 8 1 1 1 1 X

97 15* 1 1 15 1 y X 1 1 X 5 X X X (c) Klsumu

98 4 1 1 X X X X 2 X 2 X 1 1 X

99 5 2 4 X X X X 2 1 2 1 X 1 X

100 6 3 2 3 X X X 2 y 2 1 X 1 X

101 - y - - y

102 «/ 2 6 X 1 X X 4 1 2 3 X 2 X 7 / 105 '4 2 2 2 1 X X 3 1 2 X X X X

104 4 1 5 3 2 2 X 4 3 y® 2 y 3 X

(d) Nakuru

105 5 1 2 1 1 X X 3 1 X X X X X

106 6 X 3 5 X 1 1 5 y y® 1 X 1 X

(e) Kldoret

107 6 X 3 4 1 y X 6 3 2 1 X X X

108 2 1 i 3 1 X 2 X 3 1 2 X X 1 ' X

109 5 1 3 3 1 1 1 4 1 y® X X 1 X

1 10 2 X 1 3 X X X 2 X y X X y X

(f) Kitale

111 6 1 2 5 1 1 X 3 2 2 1 X 1 X

112 4 1 3 4 1 1 X 2 1 y X X 1 X

III • Lar^e-Scale Establis hment3

(a) Nairobi

1 X X 2 2 X 2 X 7 y X X X ■ 1 .X 255

Ho 1 S D G M GT R V/ G sn p F H S.T

2 8 1 7 7 2 3 2 3 2 y 2 3 2 X 5 3 3 5 3 1 1 x 3 2 y 2 . 2 4 y @ 4 109 '16 36 54 11 14 6 49 - y 17 7 12 y 5 2 1 2 1 X X (7) y y y X X X y © 6 9 1 10 y 2 4 7 11 4 y 5 1 5 y 7 1 1 2 3 X 3 2 17 3 y 1 6 3 X 8 X X 4 2 X 2 X 16 y y 2 X 2 X 9 3 X 2 2 X 2 3 5 y X X X 2 y 10 5 2 2 y 4 6 1 12 y y 30 - 3 y 11 X X 2 2 X y 2 25 1 y 3 y 2 X 12 - y y ■v 15 2 1 4 3 1 2 X 5 2 A 3 y 3 y 14 5 2 3 y 2 10 - 1 1 X 60 y X y 15 X X X X X 7 y 20 X X 2 2 4 X 16 3 1 1 1 X X (5) 1 1 X X X X y

20 14* 2 2 2 1 X X 2 1 15 X jC y 21 y y © 22 3 1 1 5 - 2 - 6 y y 25 y 2 y 25 X X X X X X (6) X y y X y 1 y 24 2 1 2 2 1 y - 2 1 X 15 y X y 25 5 1 3 2 V 3 1 6 y y 2 y 2 X 26 1 1 1 X X X X 1 1 X 3 X 1 y 27 9 1 6 3 2 2 3 20 y y ’ 1 1 3 y 256

liO L S D G GT R W G SM p p H S.T (c) Kisunu 28 10 1 7 3 1 2 3 20 y y 2 2 y (d) Ihika * 29 8 3 5 y 3 y — 3 y y y y y

(e)

30 6 1 6 - 2 4 2 7 y y 3 2 2 y

* Includes 10 Lathes for metal spinning

1 2 I 3 4 6 7 ! 9 ito ii 1 1 1 * 5 j F No. | H F F3 C FR 0 *! j B K L D M io p' n ; I. Small -Scale Establishments • | 1 i 1 • (a) Nairobi i i i 1 i 1 x/ t | 1 y X y X y X y X X M X 1 A ! x ; a X -'EN- { tl it ! 2 X y y X X X X X X M X 1 !x ;d X It tl 3 X X X X X X X X 1 - 1 x ; s X y y ; - M \ i 4 y X y X y X y X X ,, X 1 A f X i ; x i It Tl it 5 X X X X X X X 1 1 x ; f X y y y j i 6 y X X X X X y X X n B X 1 S X I N H | 7 X X X X X X X M X 1 A a X y y 1U: ; » It il 8 X X y X y X y X X " X 1 ' i x ;a X i i X X » n tt t1 9 X y X X y y X x 1 iX t 10 y X y X X X y X 1 If ' x t X i x - " x tl It 11 X X X X y X y X X » X 1 X a .. It ■ 12 X X X X X X y L X 1 X d X i y y ' | 13 X X y X X X y X X -> M X 1 •• X f X .. it y X y X X X y X X X 1 lx :s X ! 14 *rr It n j 15 X X y X y y X X 1 A !x !f X . » i 16 X X X X X X X Y 1 - s y y * x - y , B - 17 y X y y X y y X X y^N t 3 X S X

18 y X y X X X y X X X/E1T M X 1 - x ! s X

ft " - 19 y y y X y X y y X X 1 X s x

11 20 X X y X y X y X X B X 1 A X f X It it 21 y X y X X X y X X M I* 1 X f ix II tt 1 tt 22 X X y X X X y y X X 1 X a X M tt tt 23 X X y X y X y X X x 1 X t X tt It 24 y X y X X X y X X 1lx 2 - X Q X ELEMENTS OF PRODUCTION ENGINEERING ‘ TABLE A: PART C 258

No. M F FB 0 FR 0 J B M% L D H 0 H p m

25 X X y X X X y X X B X 1 A X f X 11 26 X X y X X X y X X - X 1 - X s X II 27 X X y X X X y X X M X 1 A X f X tt tt 28 X X y X y X y X X M X 1 X f X 11 n 29 X X y X X X X y y L X 1 X VI y It tt 30 X X y X y X y X X M X 1 X f T 11 tt 31 X X y X y X y X X B X 1 X f X 11 tt 32 X X y X y X y X X - X 1 X f X It it 33 y y y X X X y y X M X 1 X t T 11 tt i> 34 X X y X y X y X X X 1 X f X tt n 35 X y y X X y X X *t X 1 X f T 11 36 X y X X X y y y X Gr X 2 - X e X n tt 37 X y y X X X y y X M X 1 X t X It - 38 y X y X X X y X X B t 2 X s X It 39 X y y X X X y X X M X 1 A X t X 11 n 40 X X y X X X y y X X 1 B X t X tt tt 41 y y y X X X y X X X 1 A X t X n tt it 42 X y y X X X y y X X 3 X t X ii it 43 X X y X X X y X X X - - y s X ft it 44 X y y X X X y X X X 1 A X t X it it 45 y X y X X X y X X X 1 - X 3 X tt it 46 y X y X y X y y X X 1 A X a X ti » 47 y X y X X X y X X X 1 - X 3 X n it V 48 X y y X X X y X X X 1 A a X ii it it 49 X y y X y X y X X X 1 X t X it tt 50 y X X X X X y X X X 1 - X 3 X it tt 51 y X y X X X y X X X 1 - y 3 X 259

No M F FB c FR 0 J B M p/c L D I’l Q H p m

_ 52 y X -X X y X y X X l M X 1 X s X 53 X y X X X X X X y yEN L X 1 . A X w X n 54 X y y X — X y X X M X 1 X t X 55 X y X X X X X X y L X 1 ti X w X % II n 56 X X y X y X y X X M X 1 X f X =7 tt it 57 X X y X y X y y X * w X 1 X f X t> 1 ti 58 X y y X X X y X X x/'EH X X t X 59 y X X X X X y X X It B X 1 - X s X 60 X X y X y X y X X u M X 1 A X f X x / y 1 61 y X y X X X y X X EN M X - X s T it 62 X /* y X y X y X X X/ X 1 A X f X 7 // w H X 1 n b 63 X y y X X X y X X 'EN X X It ti 64 y X y X y X y X X M X 1 X f X 65 X y y X X X y X X n tt X 1 It X t X 66 X X y X y X y X X II tt X 1 It X a X It 67 X y y X X X y y X It tt X 1 X t X 68 X y y X X X y y X tt n X 1 II X t X 69 X X X X X X it X 1 II X t X y y y x7 / V • X / 70 X X X X X X it X 1 II X f T y y y 7 EN It tt II 71 X y y X X X y X X X 1 X t X * (b ) Mombasa X/ 72 X X y X y X y X X 7 EN M X 1 A X f X n 73 X X y X y X y X X II 11 X 1 X a X 74 y X y X X X y X X It tt t 1 - X 3 X tt 75 X y y X y X y X X It X 1 A X t A It tt 76 y X X X X X y X X X 1 - X S X It 77 y X y y y X y X X G X 3 - X s X 11 78 y X y X X X y X X M X 1 - X 3 X It u 79 X X y X X X y X X X 1 - X e X II tt 80 y X y X X X y X X X 1 - X 3 X tt 81 X X y X X X X y X y / X 1 A X a X y 11 tt 82 X X X X X 1 X -t X ■ y y y y y 7 EN ■260

Ho M F FB C FR 0 J B H. P/c L D H Q H p m

X X X X X x i M X 1 - X . s 83 y y y y x 'e h X it 84 y y y X X X y X X " ‘ X 1 ’ A X t X ii u 85 y X y X X X y X X " X 1 X f X it 86 y X y X y X y X X “ X 1 - X s X tt 87 X X X X X y y X X X 4 - X e X n 88 y X y y X X y X X " X 1 - X s X it 89 y X y X y X y X X x/W X 1 - X s X tt 90 y y y X X X y y X " X 1 - X 3 X X X X tt X 1 A X t X 91 y y X y y x

(c) Kisumu f =7 92 y /X y X X X y X x 'EH M X 1 - X s X it 93 r 1X y X y X y X X M X 1 - X s X tt 94 y X X y X X y X X " X 3 - X s X n 95 X y y X X X y X X " X 1 A X t X it 96 X X y X y X y X X " X 1 - X s X ii 97 y X y X y X y X X " X 1 A X t X tt 1 s 98 X y y X y X y X * x/w X - X X X n X 1 A X t X 39: y y X X X y X x ^ E H

(d) Hakuru x/ 100 X X y X y X y X x 'EH B X 1 - X s X 101 y X y X X X y X X " M X 1 - X s X It tt 102 y X y X X X y X ■A* X 1 - ' X s X

(e) Eldoret 103 y X X X X X y y x 'EH B X 1 - X s T

(f) Kitale x/ 104 X y y X X X y X x 7EN M X 1 A X t X n tt 105 y X y X y X y X x « X 1 y X (g) Thika xi 106 y X y y X X y X x ' EH B X 3 - X 8 . X 107 X y y X y X y X x n - X 1 A X t X

(h) Haivasha— x j l08xyyxxxyxx'ENMx1 Ax x 261

Ko M F FB c FR 0 J B M% L D M Q H p m (n ) Medium-Scale Establishments Nairobi (a) X/ * 1 X y X X y X y X X 'M PI X 2 A X b X tl n 2 X y y X X X y y X L X 2 X t X II 3 y X y X y X y y X M X 1 B X a X It 4 y X y X y X y X X H t 1 E y t I X X X X X X M X 1 A X 5 y y y x//EN y d 6 y X y X X X y y X % G y 2 E X t X X X X X X X H 1 A f T 7 X y y hi y y

8 y y y X y X y y X G y 1 D y t T 9 y X y X y X y y X ii ii y 1 D y t T 10 X X X X X/ H 2 A b y y y y y ' M y y • y it ti 11 X y y X X X y X X t 2 A X b T 12 x/ n X 2 it X b I X y y X X X y X X /F 13 X X y y X 7 G t 2 F y t T y y y y 'y X X X X X B t 1 - s T 14 y y y y 'f y II 15 y y y X y X y y X G t 1 F y t y 16 y X y X y X y X X 7 - B X 2 - X a X 17 X y X X X X X X y y/M Ii - 1 E y c X 18 y X y X y X y y X y/F G X 1 D X t X II 19 X y X X X X y X X 7 f X 1 A X w y 20 y X y X X y y X 1 X °/f - X 1 - X s X 21 y X y X X X y X X X/F G t 2 A t y n 22 y y y X y X y y X °/F B t 1 y t T it it 23 X X X y X X y y X x/EN t 3 X S T

24 y X y y X X y y X X/M M X 3 E X g y it 25 X y y X X X y ■y X x/w X 1 A X t T

26 y y y X X X X y X 7 B Ii X 1 F X y

27 y y y X X X y X X X/F G A 1 A* X t y 262

No M F FB 0 FR 0 J B M P/C L D M Q H p m

28 X X X X X y y X X X/F G X 4 - X e T

29 y X y y y X y X X X/EN M X 3 - X 3 X tl it 30 y X y X y X y X X X 1 - X S T

31 X y y X X X y y X X/F H t 2 D y b X

32 y X y X X X y X X x/w M X 1 - y s T

33 X y X X X X X X y T/ p L X 1 B X w y

34 y X y y y X y X X X/F B t 2 F X t X

35 X y y X X X y y X y /F X 1 A X t X M 36 y X X X X X y y X M X 1 - y s a?

37 y X y X y X X y X 7 y L X 1 A - p X

38 y X y X y X V X X 7 - M X 2 - s T tt 39 X X y X X X y X X H t 1 A X t T tt ti 40 X y y X X X y X X X/F X 2 X f X it 41 y X y X y X y X X X/W M X 1 X f X y/M tt 42 y y y X y X y y X G y 1 y p X tt tt 43 y X y y y X y y X x/y X 1 y t X H 44 y X y X X X y X X X/EN X 1 - X G T

45 y X y X X X y X X y/y - y 1 - y s X

46 y X y X X X y X X X/EN H X 1 A X f T

47 X y y X y X y X X x/y H X 1 - X b X u 48 X X y X X X y X X X/M X 1 A X b X n 49 y y y X y X X y X y/y G y 3 y t y ti 50 y X y X y X y X X X/F X 1 F y f X tl »t 51 y X y X y X y X X X 1 A X & X

52 y X y y X X y y X X/EN M X 2 - X s y

53 X X X X X y y X X X/M B X 4 - X e X

54 X y y X y X y y X 7 - H X 2 - X b T

55 y y y X X X y y X x /m - t 1 E X t T

56 X X y X X X y X X 7 r M y 1 A X t T '263

No K F FB C FR 0 J B M p/c L D M Q K p m V 57 y X y X X X y X X/M G X 1 - X s X * 58 X y X X X X X y y T/y L 2 E X t y

59 X y y X X X y X X X/M M t 1 A X t X u 60 X X y X X X y X X 7 - H X 1 X £ X u 61 X X y X X X y y X y/y H y 1 X f T

62 y X y X y X y X X X/M B X 1 - X s X

63 y y X X X y X y y x/y L X 1 A y w T

64 X X y X y X y X X X/F M X 1 - X t X ii 65 X y y X y X X y y L X 1 A X t X 66 X X X X X X/W M X 1 - X s X y// ; y y y 67 y X X y X/F - - 1 - — t n 68 y y X X X X y X X x/w — X 3 X t X it 69 X X y X y X y X X X/F M X 1 X t X tt n 70 y X y X y X y y X x/w X 1 X t X II it 71 y X y y y X y y X B y 3 X t X ii 72 X y y X X X y X X 7 m M X 3 X b X n 73 y X y X X X y y X x/w X 1 - s T it 74 y X y X y X y X X 7 f X 1 - X s X

i 75 y X *x X X X X X y 7 m L X 1 E y 1 w y

76 X X y X X X X y y x/ f M X 1 A X d X tt 77 X y X X X X X y y y/x G X 1 y d X

78 y X y y y. X y X X 7 f M X 3 - X S X

79 y X y X y X y X X y/F M y 2 - X S X

80 X y X X X y X y y X/F L X 1 E X W X

81 X y y X X X y X X X/EN H X 2 0 X b X

82 y X X X X X y y X °/M M X 1 - X s X ! (b) Mombasa 83 X y y X X X y X X H t 1 B • X t I'

84 y X X X X X X X y y/y L - 1 A‘ y X y 264

No M F FB C FR 0 J b ‘ M P/C L D M Q H p m

85 X y X X X X X y y X/M L X 1 A X -

86 X X y x X X X X L 1 n y 7 ? X • X t X

87 X X y x X X - - - ° / F B X 1 - X s -

88 X X y x X X y X X X/M M X 1 A X t X 89 y X y x X X y X X /X B - 1 - X s X

90 X y X X X X X X y 7 - - X 1 A - d X It n 91 X y y x X X X X y L - 1 y c - tt 92 y y y * X y X X y t/f L X 1 X w y It tt tt 93 X y y x X X X X y X 1 y w y 94 y X y y X X y X X 7 y M t 1 - X Q T 95 y X y y y X y y X ll B X 1 - X S T 96 y X y x y X y y X y/y G y 1 A y t T n 97 y y y ^ X X X X y L t 2 F X P X

(o) Kisumu 98 y X y y X X y X X 7 f M X 1 - X s X tt 99 y X y y y X y X X 7 w X 3 - X 8 X

100 y X y y y X y y 7 m G t 3 c y P X

101 X y y * X X X X y 7 - L X 1 A - C X 102 y X y y y X y X X V w M X 1 - y 8 X it ii 103 y X y y y X y X X X 1 - X S X 104 y X y y y X y y X 7 r B X 3 D X t T (a) Nakuru 105 y X y y X X y X X T v M X 3 - X S X 106 y X y y y X y X X x/EN G X 3 - X s X

(e ) Eldoret - 107 y X y y y X y X X 7 f M X 2 X s X - 108 y X y y y X y X X 7 m G X 1 X s X 109 y X y y y X y X X 7 e k m X 1 — X 8 X 110 -JL. X _^y._* JL- X 14 X 1 - X s X (f) Kitale 111 y x y y y x y x x X/F G t 3 - x S X' 112 y x y x y x y x x II M x 1 D X t X 265

Ho M f . FB G PR 0 J B M P/C L D M Q H p m

III. Lar^e- Scale Establishments (a) Nairobi • '

1 X X y x X X y y X x/ y h y 1 F y f X 2 y y y x y y y X X y/y o y 2 - y s I 3 y y y x y X ^ y y ' X y/l G y 3 - y s X ft It 4 y y y y y y y y X y 1 - y s X m 5 X y X X X X X X y 1/M L - 1 G y r y 6 y y y y y y y y X/M G y 3 A y t y 7 X y y x y X y X X y/F H y 1 F y t 11 fl 8 X X y x . y X y X X y 1 G y £ It It 9 X ./* y x X X y y X y 2 E y t y i 10 y y y y y X y y X y/E G y 2 - y m i 11 X X y x X y y y X/W H X 2 E y b X 12 X X X X X y X X y 7 - L X 2 - y e - 13 X y y x X y X y y y/l G t 1 - y d X 14 X y y x X y X y y " L t 1 - y c X 15 X y y x <*WIT X y y X 7 y h t 2 F X b X 16 X y X X X X X X y 7 - L X 1 - X r X Mombasa 17 y y y r y y y y X y/M G y 3 F y t X 18 y X y x y X y X X y/y o - 1 - y s - 19 X y y x X X y y X X/F H X 2 E X b X 20 X y x y X X X y y y/M G X 3 F y t X 21 y y y x X X X y y 7 - - - 1 - - t - 22 X y y x X y X y y X/F G X 1 G y m X 23 X y X X X X X X y y/E I X 1 G y r y 24 X y y x X y X y y y/M L t 1 - y c y - 25 y X y x y X y X X y/ y b y 1 y t X 26 X y X X X y X X y " L X 2 F y e T 27 y X y x y X y y X y/F H y 1 F •y t . X 266

No M ■ F FB G FR 0 j B ■M P/a L D M Q H p in

(c ) Kisumu , •

28 y - x y x y X y X X ■/- 0 - 1 - - t -

(d) Thika

29 X y y * X y X X y y/l L X 1 G y C X

(e) G llg ll 30 y x y y y x y y X/F B t 1 F - t x 267

2 13 5 |6 ' !7' '8 j 9 ! 10 'll |12 13

e d EN ; T : S SS L j No M/cj / ■ o : P i A : T s I T t (I) Small-Scale Establishments I i Nairobi: j j i i (a ) ;" ! i | ! ! s i ■ . i i 1 X 1 1 I x 'x 1 x . X x X X a G B X- 1 i CM x X 2 1/x I X ; X x j x : X X p p W X I X X ! g B 3 x I i | x x 3 x • x | I x x ! 1 I x x 2 x | x i X X G V 4 x ! x ! i i i i 5 X | X j 1 ! X ■ 2 X X : X |x X X p P D I '6 x ! ! X X X X i X I X- X X G D. x t 1 ,Q 7 x ! X 1 ! X 1 ; 1 X X X X - p P B j1 X — p n 8 X X 1 ! X 1 X X X i X P x iX X X p G 9 X. X 1 I X 3 1 5 ; I V 10 X X 1 j x 2 3 x ! X ■x I X X p B 1 p - 11 X I X x ; x : 2 x 1 x : X X p P ; B 12 2/x X X x x 2 x 1 X X - G G i W i 13 X X 1 j x x 3 x X X X X G G |D 14 X X. 1 ( 1 ) 1 3 1 X X X X ? G i D 15 X X 1 ; x .2 6 x X X X p D x p i V 16 X X 1 ; x 5 6 ;X X X X p i n 17 X X 1 i x 6 1 1 X X X 0 G G I w

18 X X 1 i X X 1 x X X X X P G ( D x 1 2 x X X X X D 19 X X 2 i 3? * I 20 X X 1 ! x 1 2 lx X X X X G P |J> i J i 21 X X 1 x x ; 2 X X X 0 G P ; S ! * , t 22 j X X 1 x ;x 1 x X X 1 0 G o : D 23 ! x .X 1 x j 1 2 jx X X X X P 0 I D 24 X 1 x x 3 x X X X X G P' j B x I ' I S 25 x X 1 x. i 6 2 x X X X - G G ! x !x ,8 lx X P P ! D 26 ! x X 1 j i i X X X P S 27 X ; x 1 x 4 2 ix X * X X p ! 28 ! x * x lx ;2 |1 X X X P P I I) X 1 l x f/ x X ; x X [x 'x |4 2 X X X G G j V 29 S j 1 x X X G s 30 X X x ;5 ;x jX x 31 X X 1 X : 2 |2 jx ! x X X X G o I D j 2 - 32 X X 1 X ■ 11 Ix jx J: X 0 ! f - QUANTITY OF MANPOWER AMD WORKIHS CONDITIONS TAISLE A: PJlRT D° . \

2§8

k No K/c ^/D Elf X E SS L 0 F A T 3 I T

33 X X 2 X 2 X X X X 1 0 P P D

34 X X 1 X 2 X X X X 3 0 • P P B 35 X X 1 X 4 5 X X X X X 0 G W 36 X X 2 X 1 2 X X X X X p P D 37 X X 1 - 7 4 4 X X X 0 p P B 38 X 1/1 1 1 3 X X X X X - G G B 39 x X 2 X 4 2 y X X X X P P B 40 X X 1 X 2 1 X X X X X P G ¥ 41 X X 1 X 1 2 X X X X - P P B 42 X X 1 X 1 2 2 X X X X P P B 43 X X 1 X 1 3 1 X X X 0 P P B 44 X X 1 X 3 X X X X X X P P B 45 X X 1 X X X X X X 3 0 P P B 46 X X 1 X 2 2 X X X X 0 P P T 47 X X 1 X X 2 X X X X X P G B 48 X X 1 X X 1 X X X X X P P B 49 X X 1 X 3 3 - X X X - P G T 50 X X 1 X 1 X X X X 1 0 G P B 51 X X 1 X 1 1 X X X 4 0 P G T 52 X X 1 X X 1 X X X X X P P T 53 . X X 1 (1) X 2 1 riuh.V X X - G G W . 54 1/ x X 1 X. 3 X X X X X X G P - 55 V* X X X X X 1 4 X X - P G W 56 X X 1 . X 3 3 X X X X X P P B 57 X X 1 X X 3 X X X X 0 P P B 53 X X 1 X 3 3 X X X X - - — - 59 X X 2 X X 2 X X 2 0 G G B 60 X X 1 X 1 X X X X X X P P B 61 X X 1 (1) 3 2 X X X 1 y P P B 62 1/x X X 1 1 1 X X X 3 y G P T 63'' X X 1 X 2 3 X X X X X G G V 64 X X 1 X 1 2 X X X X - - - - 65 X X 1 X X X 2 X X X X G G B 66 X X 1 X 2 2 X X X X X P P B 67 X X 6 X 9 19 1 X X X - P - B 68 X ■ X 1 X X X X X X X X P G B ■ 69 X X 1 X 1 5 X X X X X P P 3B 70 X X 1 V 2 4 2 X X 1 0 P G B 2 6 9

ffo K/C K/D E N T S S3 L 0 F A T S I T

71 x x 1 x 3 x 2 x x x x -P • P ■ B

(b) Mombasa

72 X X 1 X 2 X X X X X X p P S

73 X X 1 X 1 2 X X X X p G D 74 x/2 X 4 X 2 2 X X X X - p * G B

75 X X 1 X X 1 2 X X X 0 - - D 76 X X 1 X 1 3 X X X X X a G B 7 7 X X 1 X 3 2 X X X X X G P- B 7 8 X X 1 X 1 1 X X X X X p - B

79 X X 1 X X 4 X X X X X p* G .D 80 X X 1 X 1 1 X X X X X p G B 81 y / X X X 3 3 X X 1 X 0 p P S 82 V 1 X 1 (1) 2 2 X X 1 X X. G P S 83 X X 2 X X 2 X X X X X G G B 84 X X 1 1 1 5 2 X X X - G G W

CO - vjn X X 1 X 1 2 X X X X G P s 86 X X 1 X 1 2 X X X X - - - - 8 7 X X 1 X X 2 X X X X 0 G G w 8 8 X X 1 X 2 3 X X X X “ P P E

89 X X 1 X 2 X X X X 1 0 G G T 90 X X 1 X 1 3 X X X X X P G B. 91 1/x X X X 1 2 X X 1 X ■ - P G - (c) Klsumu 92 X X 1 X 2 1 X X X X X p G B 93 X X 1 X X 3 X X X X X p G B 94 X X 1 X 1 3 X : X X X 0 G G B 95 X X 1 X 3 X 2 X X X X G P - 96 X X 1 X 1 1 X X X X X - ~ B 97 X X 1 X 2 1 X X X X X p P B 98 X X 1 X 1 2 X X X X X p P B 99 X X 1 X 1 5 X X X X - G P B

(d) Haknru 100 X X 1 X 2 1 . X X X X 0 G G W 101 X X 1 (1) 1 1 X X X X X G G W 102 X X 1 X 2 3 X X X X X P ' G ■ T J, • s. 270

Xo ‘Vc /D EH T s S3 L 0 F A T s I T

(e) Eldoret 1 1 103 1/x X (1) X X X X 3 0 • G G W

(f) Kitale 104 X X 1 X 1 2 X X X X X P G D

105 X X 1 X 5 3 X X X X - - - -

• (g) Thika 106 X X 1 X 3 2 X X X X - P P B 107 X X 1 X 4 3 X X X X - - - -

II. Medium-Scale Es tablis laments (a) Nairobi - 1 1/x X X X 15 V5, 15 X X X X P G T ■i 2 V x X X X X 12 X X t X 0 Q & W

3 V* X 1 X 5 5 X X X X 0 P P B

4 X X X 15 X y X y X X G G ¥ 2/x

5 X X 1 X 9 5 4 X 1 X X G G Y

6 3/2 1/X X X H 3 X X X X - G G T

7 2/- 1/2 . X X 14 4 y X X X - G G Y

8 6/19 (2)/4 X X 3 15 y X 1 2 y G G ¥

9 ("> (") X X 35 7 y X 3 (’•) y G G W

10 5/2 X X (2) 10 20 13 X y X 0 G G Y

11 1/2 X X X 5 10 40 X 1 X - G G S

12 V i X X X 5 10 15 X 1 X X G G Y

13 6/1 X X (1) 30 15 y X (8) y y G G W

14 2/y X X 1 7 4 y X 1 y y G G ¥

15 2/3 X X X 30 .1 5 y X 2 X 0 P G ¥

16 X 1/x 1 X 7 8 y X 1 (1) y G P S J, • t 2 7 1 /

No H/c /D EN T s S3 L 0 P A T s I T

17 3/3 X X X 5 X y 10 y X y G G W

18 X X. 1 X 11 8 X X 1 X . X P P B

19 2/x X X X X X 3 4 1 X - G G W

20* X X X 35 10 y X 1 X 0 - - W

21 2a X X X 12 8 2 X 1 X 0 G P W

22 4/3 V x X X 8 12 12 X 1 X - P G ¥

23 X X 2 X X 15 X X X X 0 P P y 24 2/5 X X X 10 30 6 X 2 X - P P w 25 5/1 X (2) X 6 19 5 X (2) X 0 P G w

26 y 1/x X X 6 8 X 8 1 X y G G w

27 1/1 X X X 8 4 y X 1 X 0 P P T

28 X X 1 (1) 1 10 X X 1 X X G P ¥ 29 X X 1 X 1 3 X X X X X G P S

30 X X 2 X 4 2 2 X X X 0 G G T

31 1/4 X X X 18 19 3 X 6 X X G G Y

32 7 v X X X 5 3 X X X X 0 P G T

33 2/i X X X 1 2 X 6 1 X y G G W

34 2/i X X X 20 25 X X 1 X 0 P P V

35 X X 1 X 4 16 X X 1 X 0 G G' Y

36 y 1/x X X 5 9 X ■ X 1 y y P G S

37 y X X X 7 X ;X X 1 y y G G I

38 ■/i X X X 6 5 X X 1 X — P G T

39 2a X X X 5 15 y X X X X G G Y

40 3/1 X X X 7 15 y X 1 X X G G Y

41 y X X X 10 6 y X - X 0 P P T

42 1/3 X X X 8 13. 6 X 1 X 0 G G YS

43 V- X X 1 25 10 to X y X - G P ¥ r

2 7 2

Wo H/c ^/D EN T s S3 L 0 V A T S I T

44 X X 2 X 6 6 X X X. X - P' G B

45 y/3 X/4 X X 10 23 y • X 1 1 y 0 G W

46 X X 1 X 4 15 X X 1 X X p P T

47 3a X X X 15 28 y X 1 X 0 p P Y

48 X X 2 X X 12 y ’ X X X X p P S

49 5/8 4/2 1 X 6 30 y X 3 y y 0 G W

50 - - - - (2)(30) - - (D - - a P T

51 5/1 X X X 10 30 8 X y X X G P W

52 X X 3 X X 10 3 X X X - p P B 53 7* X X (1) 10 1 X X X X 0 G P V

54 3/* X X X 14 10 3 X y X 0 G G s

55 2/3 X X X 10 15 5 X y X - - - -

56 y 3/1 X 1 6 X y X 0 ) X - G G V 57 7x X X X 6 2 X X X 2 0 G G tf 58 1/i X X X (D 30 5 X 1 X - G G w

59 1 /x 1 X 2 8 X X 1 X X G P I

60 y/y X X X 2 y y X 0 ) X X P G Y

61 y V i X X 10 7 48 X 2 X 0 . G ,G W

62 1/1 X 1 X 10 15 X X 1 X X G P B

63 3/ y X X X 6 10 8 6 y X 0 G P V/

64 2/i X X 5 17 y X 1 X 0 P G W

65 2/ > lV * X (1) 25 19 X X 1 X 0 P P B

66 2/i X X X 2 4 2 X X X X P P V

67 - “ - - 3 5 y 5 - - - - - B

68 < 7 * X X 1 3 10 5 5 X X - G G W

69 y/x X X X 3 4 6 X X * X - G P s

70 X X 1 X 4 6 X X X X — G P. T 273

No H/C S/D EN T ’ s S3 L 0, F A T s I T

A 71 1/2 1A t X 10 10 15 X - X. X 0 0 G W. 72 Vx X X X 10 •10 10 X X 5 0 p P B 73 X X 1 X 4 6 X X X X X p P T 74 X X 1 X 9 5 4 X 1 X x ■p P B 75 3/y X X X 1 ' 2 3 9 X X - G G W 76 1/1 X X X 19 10, X. X 1 X X G P v;

77 3/8 X X (1) (3) 36 13 10 3 X y P G w. 78 V i X X X 6 11 X X 1 X 0 G G w 79 y/y 2’/ (2) X 1 10 6 8 X o ) X y P G s 80 2/2 X X 1 5 X X 25 (D X 0 P G w 81 1/x X 1 X 6 10 X X 0 ) X X G G B 82 3/1 X X X 5 5 5 X X X X P G B (b) Mombasa

83 1/x X X X 11 7 X X X X WV* P P T CM 84 X X X 12 X y 35 3 X - G G W

85 1/x X X X X X y 17 1 X - P P X 86 3/1 X X X X 14 X X 1 X 0 G G B 87 3/2 X 'X X 3 15 X X 1 X X G . G Y

88 1/x X X X 8 4 X X 1 X X P G B 89 « y/- X X 6 6 - X 1 - y G P W

90 V i X X X X X y 10 1 X - — - - 91 - - - - 3 15 - 15 0 ) - G P T

92 X X 5 y 25 3 X X G P I

93 2/23 (V x X X 3 X y 30 7 X X G P I1

94 2/x (‘ V x X X 4 6 X X 0 ) 2 0 P G B

95 y X X X 7 20 X X 1. X - P P W X 1 G G V 9 6 3/3 V- X X 10 19 y y y .

97 3/x 1(V x X X 8 5 y y X 3 0 G G V 274

TP T\T Ho W/C ^/D T s SS L 0 F A T s I X

98 1/x x X X 4 5 X X 1 X . x G G W

99 2/x X X X 10 4 10 X 1 X X P P' T

100 3/x X X X 14 10 3 X y X - 0 G Y

101 y/y - - - 4 4 8 9 ------

102 2/1 X X X 6 6 4 X 1 X X P P W

103 3/1 X y X 5 (12) X X X 12 y P G B:

104 2/x X X 1 8 20 X X 1 X 0 P P S

(d) Nakuru

105 y/x X X X 4 3 5 X X X 0 G Y // 106 x X 2 X 6 20 X X X X y P P T

(e) Eldorefc

107 2/2 X (2) X 8 (3) 3 X X 3 y P P S

108 3/x X (2) X 6 (4) X X 1 4 y G G Y

109 X/1 X 2 X 5 y X X X X 0 P P S

110 x X 1 X 4 4 4 X (1) X 0 G G s

(f) Kit ale

111 2/2 X X X 10 17 X X 1 4 y p G B

112 V x X X X 10 4 X X 1 X - G - W

III. Large-Scale Establishments (a.) Nairobi i

1 3/5 3/3 X . X 45 35 y X 2 y y G G W

2 y/y y/x X (6) 34 28 y X 6 y y G ' G w

3 y/y y/y X y 40 30 180 X 4 y y G G Y

4 y/y 7/4 X y 582 335 199 - 55 y y G G W

5 5 / 1 2 1/ x X 6 10 2 0 30 X y y y G G W

6 5/13 (3>y X 3 75 22 22 X X y y G G tf

7 y/y 1/1 X 3 1 0 30 30 X y - y G G •T 275

S3 m 3 M/C 2/D EN T 8 L 0 P A •4m S I T

8 y/y 2/5 X - 12 6 y X 1 y y 0 G y

9 y/y 2/ 3 X 10 y 15 y X 1 6 y G G w

10 4/ l 2 1/5 X y 10 50 40 30 6 - - G G V!

11 4/2 X X X 40 35 y X y X X G G V

12 y/y " / x X y 10 20 30 y 3 - - G G w

13 5/20 7 x X 1 20 y y 78 5 - - P G w

H 5/2 0 2A X y 20 y 70 250 12 11 y ' G G tf

15 2 h X X X 76 76 y X y X X G G V

16 y /5 X X X 7 20 60 X 2 - X G P V (b) Honihas a

17 y/y 2/2 X y 72 42 y X 6 - 0 G G Y

18 y/y y/ x X 2 21 50 30 X 4 - y G G T

19 2/5 X X 2 18 60 30 X 1 - X P G T

20 4/7 2/ ( 1 ) X 3 24 29 20 18 4 X X G P W

21 - - X - 20 25 y 30 — - - G G W

22 y/y X X 1 15 30 y 20 y “ - P P w

23 3/13 2/x X y 15 15 y 2 3 y y G G V

24 ^/22 V x ■ X 2 10 20 y 100 9 y y G . G V/

25 2/ U (V i X y 25 20 y X 5 y y P G w

26 y/y x/x X 4' 5 100 y 2 y y G G w 27 5/ 15 2/6 X (2) 30 80 100 X 4 y y G G w

28 y/y 3/x X y 20 53 41 X 3 y y G G Y

(d) Thika

29 3/l 5 V* y 10 y y 200 7 53 y G G V/ (e) Oii^il

30 2/2 1/y x y 5 55 y x 1 y y- P P T 1 60 0 _ APPENDIX 4

1200 00 00 O O METRIC TONS

a J 4 0 0

\ y

O ..■1..... t - *------!------J------>------1 195! 63 65 67 69 7

YEAR

IMPORT OF MFTAI. WORK. MACHINERY SOURCE STATISTICAL ABSTRACT 19T l APPENDIX 5

SOURCE RAW MATERIALS 5TNT1STICNL ABS^RNCT 19*11 *278

APPENDIX__ 6 PYRITE

(i) (ii) (iii) percent percent percent si°2... 6.19 5.67 5.22 s ...... 34.65 46,18 37.15 As■•••••• trace trace trace Cu..... trace Ni..... trace trace trace Pe,etc, ' (By diffe rence).. 59.16 48.15 57.65 i 100.00 100.00 100.00 i (i), '(ii) , (iii), Bukuru (See Para. 2,1.2. - a(i:

NYANZIAN IRONSTONES

(i) (ii) (iii) percent percent percent i i ° ! o i Si02• * * * 39.10 62.10 Fe?0^... 55.31 33.36 64.72 Ti02___ 0.085 0.12 Trace PpO^* • ». 0o23 0.12 0.17 o o

3 1 • 1 1 1 t • o 0.076 0.09

COMPOSITION OF LOCAL IRON ORES

Source: "Minerals of Kenya"f Bulletin Ho. 11 of the Ministry of Natural Resources, Geological Survey of Kenya, page 37. 279

APPENDIX 7

PROCESS OPEE-HEAKTH1 BESSEMER** ELECTRIC FURMACE5 Cost (£) 12 to 14 11 8 to 10

APPROXIMATE CAPITAL COSTS (Per ton of annual output) NOTES: - 1. Includes fixed furnaces with inactive mixers, cranes, gantries, firing and control equipment, instru mentation, raw material handling facilities, mould preparation and stripping equipment, metal and slag handling facilities, waste heat boilers, buildings , and ancilliaries. 2, Includes mixer3, cars, ladles, blowers, lime and dolomite plant, basic slag plant, oxygen services and buildings* 3* Includes furnace plant complete with all ancilliaries and buildings.

Source: Bashforth, G.R., "The Manufacture of Iron and 8teel", Volume II, 1963, page 353. 9- *** 280

APPENDIX 8 TRANSFER 0? FINISHED PRODUCTS AND PACKING- MATERIALS TO AND FROM THE WAREHOUSE AND FACTORY RESPECTIVELY *23

RATE ANNUAL COST TOTAL COST LABOUR NO. (SALARIES) L Horn (SAIAEI3S) FOR SEVEN KShs K£ YEARS(IN K£) 1 t Factory j | \ Packers 6 ‘ 459 33*048 1652.4 ' 11566.8

Warehouse : j Packers \ 6 1 459 33*048 1632*4 : 11566.8 i j i

I TOTAL : 12 66.096 i 3304.8 ' 23133.6 i !

COST: MATERIALS HANDLING;

Note:- 1 , The rate of manual loading and unloading is not known* 2. The trailer maximum load is 8*1 tons* 3. Such products as edible drums and some chemicals cannot be conveniently loaded manually•

Source: Work Study Department, East African Industries Limited, Nairobi. 201

APPENDIX 8 A.

TRANSFER OP FINISHED PRODUCTS AND PACKINC MATERIALS TO Aim FROM THE WAREHOUSE AND FACTORY RESPECTIVELY (a) Extra Labour Involved: j ANNUAL COST : TOTAL COST iKo - I S (SALARIES) ; (SALARIES) ' MONTH - FOR SEVEN i I ■ YEARS (IN : ! \ KShs K£ ! KX)

Pork Lift j . j Driver '1 *628 '7,536'376.8 | 2,637„6

(b) Pork Lift (6,COO lb Capacity);

DESCRIPTION ANNUAL COST I TOTAL COST T +7.7 4 kjj QTTTrL'Trr.j y u ii KShs KX YEARS (K£) Buying Price ' 4,685 Cost of Diesel 3,000 150 1,050 Estimated Repair Charges 14,480 724 5,068 TOTAL 10,803

1 . The cost of diesel is calculated at the rate of -/73 cents per litre and using I3°6 litres per day. 2. The repair charge is based on the total charges incurred in the year 1971 for the existing Hyster Pork Lifts. TYPE CP IMPORT PRODUCTS TO WHICH IMPORT RESTRICTIONS APPLY RESTRICTIONS i Schedule A Plat iron sheets (ungalvanised or uncoated); iron and steel Import allowed wire including nickelplated wires; roofing nails, tacks and under license fencing staples*; other screws, rivets and similar articles*; Baser blades; Butt hinges; Tower bolts (brass and aluminium); Disc ploughs; water meters; Bicycles; Tricycles; Bicycle parts.

Schedule B Wire rods and bars oi iron and steel; Corrugated iron Import not sheets; Steel windows and doors; Parts of fully fabricated allowed steel works, including buildings and bridges; Aluminium windows and doors; Gauze; griff; netting, fencing and rein forcing fabrics of iron or steel wire; Round wTire nails; Wood screws; Kocs; Katchets; Axes; Shovels and spades; wood band saw blades; Charcoal irons; Cooking pans; Crown corks; Earth pans; Gcmplete low-speed agricultural trailers (other than road trailers).

IMPORT RESTRICTIONS TYPE OF IMPORT PRODUCTS TO WHICH IMPORT RESTRICTIONS APPLY RESTRICTIONS

Schedule C G-as cylinders; Barbed wire of iron and steel; Other fencing Import licence wire of iron and steel; Screw-drivers; Domestic utensils of required and onl^ stainless steel; Tinned and enamel tea trays, spray guns granted under and charcoal irons; Padlocks, locks including "bicycles and special circum furniture locks; Shoe eyelets; Bead wire rings and rat traps; stances. Grinding mills and single furrow hand ploughs; Hydraulic pipe benders; Hydraulic rams; Air compressors; Hydraulic jacks; Hydraulic elevating tables; Airlifters for workshops; Mounted mini-cranes; Hydraulic fork lifts; Metric weights; Fire extinguishers; Hydraulic presses.

* Other than these covered by a manufacturer's part number.

Source: Extracted from the Exchange Control Circular Eos. 10 & 11,

Central Bank of Kenya, dated 6th January, 1972. 9A APPENDIX

i 1 i. ! . '* * PRODUCTION PROGRAMME - WEEK ENDING ...... -fe?-- #^ U17 /

Monday 3 / 5 Tuesday 4 / 5 Wednesday 5/5 Thursday 6/5 Friday 7 / 5 Saturday 8/5 5629 21 OL Agip 5629 2 1 OL drua 210L Agip 5548 210L Shell 5548 21 OL Shell 5*2; Grey White 425 HO/Yellov 1125 A^p 450 Grey/White 1125 RO/Yellov 1 1 2 5 with FI Sc; sen FI screen deliver to Esso >543 2 1 QL Shell to he deliv ;re& (Complete E 300) " EO/Yallov 600 to Euao 5594 20OL 02 w E n so 1 2 0 w 5132 200L OB n Caltcx .-3 Multifok 2 u 2 0 0 L OS Shell 1 8 0 TOTAL 1C>0 TOTAL 1125 TOTAL 1125 TOTAL 736 TOTAL 1125 TOTAL I ’.'fork up "to 4.15 Work up to 4.15 Work up to 4-15 Work up to 4.15 Work up to 4.15 Work no to . Compioto Couplet© 5593 5583 2 1 L pail-L- 5615 35D pail 2 1 L pail —i 21L pail Loubil 560 6 Walpamur 1 8 8 1 Henkel 1 0 0 Sadolino 4077 Sadolina 21L pail 5493 5 6 1 6 6 0 L OE M 5517 21L pail ‘ Galaxy 300 *-♦ 5546 2 1 L pail—lr Eoso 300 Henkel 1 0 0 Coates 1 0 0 0 5361 16L pail • » * 60L OE Twigs) gree 50 0 5 6 0 1 2 1 L pail—L- 5623 2 1 L pail a Mobil 5 0 Robbidao 5 0 0 Mobil 5330 20L Mobil 5605 6 0 L OS 5497 2 1 L pail-L- All available.a ieeto 20L Esso Shull ^50 •>4 Galnxy 20 0 All available elhets. 6 0 L OS Easo C'.O'u OE Caite 1 pliiL 5OL_0L’ Cd.tr ______t TOTAL 4077 TOTAL 1700 TOTAL 2181 TOTAL 4902 40 Work up "to 6 * 1 5 Work up to 6 . 1 5 Work up to 6.15 Work up to 6.15 Work up to 6.15 Work up to Cleaning ou' * « « 21L pail ««• 60L 0E Lugcovers 23L Mobil Mobil 50 Lugoovere Esso 3 0 0 Y- Blaok 'J - 2 1 L Mobil 561^ 60L OH -Y- Blue Ro.lorcoating Euso 135 V- RO o*0 (i G.M. t. ^ 60L Grease 280 -Y- Mobil W1Lite W.X. <£_ 6 0 L Grease 50 5125 6 0 L 0 2 Mult- Prod. Eng. ‘ 75 K&int.Eng. ^ File 19/i-V) MU —r- - ; Running Gaskets Running Gaskets - Running Gaskets 01 XldN3ddY' up to 6 . 1 5 up to 6 . 1 5 up to 6 . 1 5 *G • • a « • £6 tfarka Ifen4^«r 285

a p p e n d i x 11

EXPORT VALUES SHARE OP TOTAL INDUSTRY £ 1000 Per cent 1967 1974 1967 1974

Agricultural Products 34,360 54,950 43.1 45.8

Total Processed Agricultural Products 12,464 15,400 15.6 12.8

Total Agricultural Products 46,824 70,350 58.7 50.6

i Metal' Products, and / . Machinery 2,961 3,250 3.7 2.7

EXPORTS: 1967 AND 1974

Source: Development plan, 1970-1974, Republic of Kenya, page 153- 286 i

APP3NDIX 12

CATE- P R OVIK C E GORY TOTAL TOTAL WEST 1JYAHZA EIFT CENTRAL EAST COAST RURAL URBAN Ear ning 12 9 11 5 2 2 7 13

Skil led Labour 15 19 14 8 16 13 14 19

Cleri cal 20 21 14 27 21 36 23 20 Tea ching 13 13 22 20 15 34 19 14

Poli tics 5 10 11 11 8 6 9 5 Medi cal 16 10 3 15 17 2 12 17 Tech nical/ Profe ssional 20 18 24 15 20 8 17 11

TOTAL 101 100 99 101 99 101 101 99

1 PREFERRED1 JOBS BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORIES • AMD PROVINCES (In per cent) Source: Koff, D.R.- "Prospectives of Kenya Primary Pupils", "Education, Employment and Rural Development", Report of the Kericho(Kenya) Conference, 25th September - 1st October, 1966, page 401** APPSi.TOX 1 ^

REFERENCES 287

CHAPTER I

1• Ashburn, A "Organization of a Machinery Census and Use of Census Data with Special Deference to Industrially Developing Countries", paper presented at the United Nations Interregional Symposium, Moscow, 7th September to 6th October, 1966, United Nations Publications, No. 3.69,11. B.2., entitled "Development of Metalworking Industries in Developing Countries", page 109®

2 "Industrial Production Surveys of Large-Scale Firms", 1964-1966, Statistics Division, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, page 1 »

3. Jelen, F.C, "Cost and Optimization Engineers"^ McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1970, page 102*

4 Cooper, C. "The Channels and Mechanisms for the Transfer of Technology from a Developing Country", United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, TD/B/AC•11/5> 27th April, 1971 * page 19. 5. "Methodological and Operation Aspects of Machine Tool Studies in Developing Countries", paper presented by the Secretariat of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America at the same symposium as citation 1 above, page 203. ^288

c h a p t e r i i 1. Du Bois, C.G.B. and Y/alsh, J., '‘Minerals of Kenya” Bulletin Mo* 11, Ministry of Natural Resources, page;? 35,13,4V

2* Hill, M.F., ."permanent Way”, East African Rail ways and Harbours, page 2 3 9 0

3* "Sunday Nation", E.A. Newspapers (Nation Series) limited, January 17, 1971, page 26„

4o "East African Report on Trade and Industry", Official journal of the Kenya Association of Manufacturers, July 1970, page 30«

5* "Daily Nation", E.A. Newspapers (Nation Series) Limited, Financial News, January 13, 1971.

6 <> "Tech Air", The Journal of the Society of Licensed Aircraft Engineers and feehaologi t Hay 1971, page c (iii).

7. Pulfrey, W. and Walsh, J., "The Geology and Mineral Resources of Kenya”, Bulletin No. 9, Ministry of Natural Resources, 1969, pages 26*. 27, 30, 24. 8. Same as citation 3 above, December 13, 1970, Business Section.

9. Voskuil, W.H., "Minerals in World Industry", , McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1935, pages 76, 73*

1 0 o Alexandersson, G., "World Shipping", John Wiley and Sons, New York/London, 1963, page 81.

11. Bashforth, G.R., “The Manufacture of Iron and Steel”, Volume I, Chapman and Hall Limited, 1 963, page* 11 ,2.10, 2.75 12. "Statistical Abstract, 1971", Ministry of Finance and Planning, pages 61, 114, 58, 97, 47, 49. 2 8 9

13. Same as citation 5 above, January 28, 1972, page 17.

14. "Development Plan, 1970-1974", Republic of ■ Kenya, pages 352, 353, 357*

15. Tariff catalogue, East African Power and Lighting Company Limited,Pa.to-

16. "The Chartered Mechanical Engineer", Journal of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, January 1972, page 51*

17. Eengough, C.C,, "Commercial Timbers of Kenya", Ministry of Natural Resources, 1971.

18. Rowe, R.D.H., "Rotes on Forestry and Faming iij the Kenya Highlands", Forest Department Pamphlet Ho. (Second Series) 1, page 3.

19. "Eucalyptus for Planting", Food and Agricul tural Organisation of the United Nations, Forestry and Forest Products Studies No. 11, page 146.

20. Rollason, B.C., "Metallurgy for Engineers" Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited, Third Edition, 1961, page 146.

21. Bashforth, G-.R., "The Manufacture of Iron and Steel", Volume II, Chapman and Hall Limited, 1963, pages 297, 312. ' 22. Singh, M., "India's Export Trends", Oxford University Press, 1964, page 114*

23. Same citation as 3 above, January 17, 1971, but page 26.

24. "Instruction Manual on SteeJ. Manufacture" T Chief Mechanical Engineer's Railway Workshop, Nairobi, 1959, Sections 5.20 and 18.00.

25* "East African Standard", East African Standard (Newspapers) Limited, Nairobi, January 11, 1973, page 5. 2g)0

26. "Economic Geography of Industrial Materials'1, edited by Albert S. Carlson, Chapman and Hall Limited, London, 1956, page tT f .

27* Wimbush, S.H., "Catalogue of Kenya Timbers”, Government Printer, Nairobi, 1957, pages 51? 41, 45 and 47*

28. De Garmo, E.P., "Materials and Processes in Manufacturing", The MacMillan Company, London, 1969, pages 255, 518, 529« 29. Sakharov,. G.M., "Design of Machine Tool Plants for Developing Countries", same symposium as stated in citation'1, Chapter I, but page 185.

30* Same citation as 5 above,but issue o* 11, te>. 51. Pearson, C.E., "The Extrusion of Metals", Chapman and Hall Limited, I960, pages 75, 31 and 163* 32. Alexander, J.M., and Brewer, R.C.,"Manufacturing Properties of Materials", D. Van ITosbrand Company, 1968, pages 86, 290 and 301, 514*

33. Same citation as 16, October 1972, page 94*

34. Same citation as 25 above, May 16, 1972, page 2.

35. Houldcroff, P.T*, "Welding Processes", Cambridge at the University Press, 1967, pages 23, 35, 135, 150. 36. Chapman, W.A.J., "Workshop Technology", Part III, Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited, 1961, page 56

37. Department of Mechanical Engineering1, University of Nairobi.

38. Sane citation as 4 above, June 1970, page 12<> 291

CHAPTER III I. Same citation as 2 of Chapter II, but pages 148, 190, 239.

2* White, L.W. Thornton, SilbermanL., Anderson P.R., "Nairobi blaster Plan for a Colonial Capital11, His Majesty^ Stationery Office, 1948, pages 2, 38.

3. Arkirt, H., and Colton, R.R. , "Statistical Methods", Barnes and Noble, New York, 1963* page 50.

4. Estall, R.C. and Buchanan, R.O., "Industrial Activity and Economic Geography", Hutchinson University Library, 1966, pages 27, 97.

5. Dixon, H.H., "Nairobi Water Supply", Journal of the East African Institute of Engineers, Volume 17, No. 1, March 1968, page 13* 6. Bradley, D., "Fuel and Power in Kenya", University of Nairobi, Department of Mecha nical Engineering, Technical Report M70/1(1970).

7. Same citation as 14 of Chapter II but pages 173, 305, 3H, 324, 353, 366. 8. Same citation as 25 of Chapter- II but issue of 13th June,-1971.

9. Dandekar, V.M., "The Role of the Small-scale Industry in the Indian Experience", "Education, Employment and Rural Development", Report of the Kericho (Kenya) Conference, 25th September to 1st October, 1966, page 152.

10. Staley, E. and Morse, R., "Modern Small Industry for Developing Countries", Stanford Research Institute, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965, page 301.

II. Same citation as 25 of Chapter II but issue of 13th May, 1971. 292

12. "Energy", published by the Caterpillar Tractor Company, Peoria, Illinois, U.S.A., Volume 6, No. 1, page 5.

13* Greene, D.E., "Production Technology"-, Chapman and Hall Limited, 1962, page 58*

14* Ivanov, E.K., "Group Production Organisation", Business Publications Limited, 1968*

15* Thornley, R.H., "Group Technology - a Complete Manufacturing System", same citation as 16 of Chapter II but issue of January 1972, page 46.

16. "Automation", Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1956.

17* Same citation as 25 of Chapter II but issue of 19th December, 1970, page 1.

18. Same citation as 25 of Chapter II but issue of 17th March, 1972, page 2.

19. Lingard, "Materials Handling in the Deve loping Countries", "Materials Handling and Management", Official Journal of the Institute of Materials Handling", March 1970, page 27.

20. Lehrer, R.N., "Work Simplification", Prentice- Hall, 1957, page 8. 21. Lockyer, K.G., "Factory Management", Pitman Publishing, 1968, page 117.

22. Same citation as 3 of Chapter II, but issue of June 1970, page 25.

23. "Management Today", Journal of the British Institute of Management, July 1969, page 71.

24. Vallance and Doughtie, "Design of Machine Members", McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1951, page 1. 293

25* "World Construction", February 1972 - Volume 25, No. 2, Dun-Donnelley Publishing Corporation, 466 Lexington Avenue, New York.

26. Exchange Control Circular No. 1/1972’, dated 6th January, 1972.

27. "Conservation", Caterpillar Tractor Company, Peoria, Illinois, U.S.A. , 1951*

28. Whitfield, P.R., "Creativity and Design", same citation as 16 of Chapter II, but issue of January 1969, page 3*

29. Haddock, I., "Stimulating Innovation In Industry", same citation as 16 of Chapter J.I, but issue of September 1968, page 353®

30. //Pitts, Go, "Design and Developments", same citation as 16 of Chapter II, but issue of Hay 1972, page 72.

31. Agbasiere, J.A., and Chukvujekwu, S.E., "Teaching Mechanical Engineering Design in Africa", same citation as 16 of Chapter II, but issue of October 1972. 2 9 4

CHAPTER IV

1. Sane citation as 14 of Chapter II but page 311*

2. Same citation as 10 of Chapter III, but page 318.

3. Berna, J.J., "Industrial Entrepreneurship in Madras State", Stanford Research Institute, Asia Publishing House, London, I960, pages 171 •

4. Same citation as 3 of Chapter II, but issue of January 1972, page XI.

5. Eilon, S., "Production Management for Developing Countries", same citation as 1 of Chapter I, but page 409® 6. Gillespie, "Engineering Reorganisation", Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons Limited, London, page 194. // 7. Pronikov, A.S., "Repair and Maintenance of Machine Tools in Developing Countries", same citation as 1 of Chapter I, but page 507.

\ 295

CHAPTER V

1* Rice, W.B., "Calibration Requirements for Government Contractors", American Society for Quality Control, Annual Convention Transactions, I960, page 8 7 - 9 3 .

2* Juran, J.M., "Measurement", Quality Control Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962, page 9-16*

3o Seder, L.A., "Quality Control in the Job Shop", same as citation 2, Section 26*

4. Phillips, P.E., "How the East African Bureau of Standards Will Operate", same citation as 4 of Chapter II, but issue of January 1970, page

12*

5. Same citation as 25 of Chapter II, but issue of 27th July, 1972, page 5.

6. "Kenya Gazette", Notice No. 510, 18th February, 1964. 7* Wilson, J.B., "The Problems and Significance of Industrial Standardization in Metalworking Industries in Developing Countries", paper presented by United Nations Interregional Symposium, Moscow, 7th September to 6th October, 1966, U.N. Publication, E.69.11.B*2., page 115*

8* Weston, G., "Metrication: Plans and Progress to Date", same citation as 16 of Chapter II, but issue of May 1968, page 210*

9* "Metrication At Work", Transcript of Seminar Proceedings held by Whiteley Lang & Neill Limited, Speke H a l l Road, Liverpool, ILK. June 1971<>

10. "The Change to the Metric System", same citation as 5 of Chapter III, but Volume 16, No* 3 t September 1967* PaSe 82. 296

CHAPTER VI

1. Manpower Survey, 1967, Statistics Division,•' Ministry of Finance and Planning, Republic of Kenya.

2. Jackson, V/., "Education and Training of Tech nicians", Commonwealth Education Liaison Com mittee, Her Majesty*s Stationery Office, 1966, page 23.

3* Varley, F., "Aide-Memoire on Technicians and Technician Engineers", Journal of the same citation as 5 of Chapter III, but Volume 19, No. 4, December 1970, page 106. I 4. ,Waite, W.W., "Managerial and Technical Per sonnel Requirements in Metal-Processing Industries", same citation as 1 of Chapter I, but page 215. 5. Williams, CM, "Recruitment to Skilled Trades1*, Routledge and Kegan Paul Limited, London, 1957, page 46.

6. Chandrakant, L.S., "Education and Training of Technicians", Commonwealth Education Liaison Committee, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1966, page 31 o 7. Getahi, E.S., "Development of Industrial Training in Kenya", same citation as 5 of Chapter III, but Volume J8, No. 2, June 1969, page 36. 80 Same citation as 14 of Chapter II, but pages 113 and 120. 9. Edokpayi, S.L., "Industrialisation and Man power Development in Africa", paper presented at a. seminar on Technical Education and Training for Industrialisation, Berlin, 12th June, to 3rd July, 1969, (German Foundation for Developing Countries) proceedings 37/69-1, page 1 „ *■ ? 97

10* Wel l e n s , J., "The Training Revolution", Evans Brothers Limited, London, 1963, page 25*

11* Same citation as 16 of Chapter II, but issue of October 1972, page 73®

12* Same citation as 5 of Chapter III, but Volume 15, No* 2, June 1966, page 38®

13® Palmer, W.B.f "The Inclusion of Practical Work as a Requirement for the Engineering Degree11, same citation as 5 of Chapter III, but Volume 18, No* 2, June 1969.

14® Same citation as 25 of Chapter II, but issue of 14th July, 1972, page 8*

15. Turner, B.T*, “Utilising Highly Qualified Manpower”, same citation as 16 of Chapter II, but Volume 19, No. 6, June 1972, page 61*

16* Same citation as 3 of Chapter IV, but page 43®

17* Employment and Earnings, 1963-1967, Statistics Division, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, November, 1971, page 6*

18. Banjo, A., “The Design Engineer: His Work and His Role in Development", paper presented at a seminar on Technical Education and Training for Industrialisation, Berlin, 12th June to 3rd July, 1969, (German Foundation for Deve loping Countries) proceedings, S7/69-11, page 1*

19* Palmer, W.B*, “Engineering Research in East Africa", same citation as 5 of Chapter III, but Volume 17, No. 2, June 1960, page 56.

20. “The 1971 Survey of Professional Engineers", Council of Engineering Institutions, 2, Little Smith Street, London, page 14. CHAPTER VII

16 Same citation as 2 of Chapter III, but page-50.

2. Hempel, E.H., "Small Plant Management", KcGraw- Hill Book Company, 1950, page 134.

3. Heinrich, H.VJ*? "Industrial Accident Prevention", McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950, page 189*

4o Kuhn, H.S. "Byes and Industry", Henry Kimpton, London, page 219.

5# Same citation as 5 of Chapter II, but issue of Wednesday, 5th Hay, 1971, page 5* ♦ s. 299

CKAFCSK YIIX

1* Sane citation as 12 qx Chapter II, but pages 59 and 189.

2* Same' citation as 3 of Chapter IV, but page ix.

3* Same citation as 29 of Chapter III.