6 X 10.Long.P65

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-89141-7 - Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India Kanchan Chandra Index More information

Index

Italic page numbers indicate ﬁgures.

Action Group (AG), 5, 9 centralized organization of, 246–7, Adamu, Haroun, 47 257–61 Adharmis, 168–9, 190, 191 Chamars and, 22, 143, 145, 151, 168–70, Adi Dravida, 192 188–9, 191–2, 210, 231, 242, 258, Adi Karnataka, 192 259–61 Adivasis, 290 Congress party alliance with, 241–2 African National Congress (ANC), 5 Congress party versus platform of, 151, Ahirs, 289, 290 155, 157–8 AJGAR political coalition, 290 Dalit Sangarsh Samiti (DSS) merging Akali Dal, 181, 183, 191, 206, 250–1 with, 166, 193 Akerlof, George, 34–5 Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangarsh Samiti All India Congress Committee (AICC), (DS-4) and, 144–5, 149, 192 247–9, 248t diversiﬁcation of candidate base, 198 Ambedkar, B. R., 144, 153, 222 elite interviews with, 293–6, 294t Andhra Pradesh, 218, 276 ethnic message abandoned by, 220 Annadurai, C. N. 279 from ethnic to multiethnic party, 16, 17 ethnic identity of candidates in, 198, backward classes, see other backward 216–17, 231–2 classes fragmentation of, 167–8 Bahadur, Raj, 186 grievances and performance of, 170–1 Bahujan, 151, 290 Haryana and, 20f, 21, 146t, 147, 165, 166 deﬁnition of, 15, 148, 149 in Jammu and Kashmir, 20f, 21, 165, 166 Dalit Sangarsh Samiti (DSS) merging Hindi belt and, 166–7 with, 166, 193 history of, 143–5, 178 Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangarsh Samiti Indian Constitution reserved seats and, (DS-4) and, 144–5, 149, 192 198 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) Karnataka, representational openness, Bahujan as term in, 148, 149–50 and failure of, 194–5 BAMCEF and, 144–5, 148, 150, 155, 165, language divisions impeding, 166–7 186, 190 lateral expansion through multiplication BJP, alliance against, 241 of monoethnic factions, 258–9, 259f BJP, alliance with, 261 leverage, voters and, 226–7, 229–34, 232t, cadre camps of, 150, 155 233t, 236–7 campaign message of, 150–8 Muslims and, 216–17 candidate level, representation of, organizational history of, 164–6 197–200, 198t, 200t, 232 organizational structure of, 246–7, 257

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Index

Bahujan Samaj Party (cont.) Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), 18, 191, 197, party versus candidates preference in, 202 199–200, 200t backward castes, incorporation of, 268–9, Ramdassias and, 145, 189 270–2, 274–5 Samajwadi Party alliance with, 241, 260–1 backward caste vote shifted to, 266, 267, Sikhs and, 145, 146t 267t state versus national leadership, 200, in Bihar, 262, 270–5, 282 200n1 BSP alliance against, 241 state-by-state performance of, 19–22, BSP coalition with, 261 313–14t Congress party’s organizational decay support base, estimates of, 310–12, and, 266–7 313–14t 1991 election campaign and, 263 upper castes and, 136–7, 148, 155–7 1996 election campaign and, 204–6 variation in representational founding of, 263 opportunities in, 22, 29, 260–1 in Gujarat, 264, 268–9, 275 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in Karnataka, Hindu backlash and, 265–6 20f, 21, 22, 25, 25f, 29 Jharkhand and, 282–3 failure of, 172, 184–5, 193–5, 246–7, 261 organizational structure of, 23, 30, 272–5 launching of, 178, 182, 193 support base, estimates of, 23–5, 264, 315t relative representation of Scheduled upper castes and, 266–7, 267t, 269 Castes in, 194–5, 246, 261 Bharatiya Janata Sangh (BJS), 263, 266, 272 SCs and, 159, 159t, 165, 166 Bharatiya Kisan Kamgar Party (BKKP), 241 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in Punjab, 20f, Bhils, 289 21, 22, 25, 25f, 29 Bhumihar, 250 alliances, 241 Bihar, 288, 290 Chamars and Adharmis in, 191–2, 258 BJP in, 262, 270–5, 282 launching of, 178, 190–1 JMM in, 281–2 relative representation of Scheduled Bihar People’s Party (BPP), 282 Castes in, 191–2, 255 BJP, see Bharatiya Janata Party SCs and, 145, 146t, 147, 158–9, 158f, Bolivia, MRTKL in, 5 163t, 165, 166, 168, 169 Brahmins, 37, 137, 148, 157, 187, 258, Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in UP, 20–1, 20f, 278–9, 278t 22, 24–5, 25f, 29, 136–7 Brass, Paul, 126, 126n36, 183, 257 alliances, 241–2, 260–1 Brazil, 69 Chamars in, 188–9 bribes, see corruption launching of, 178, 181, 185–6 Britain, see United Kingdom leadership turnover in, 189 British India, 256 relative representation of Scheduled BSP, see Bahujan Samaj Party Castes in, 188–9, 189t Buddhists, 149 SCs and, 146t, 147, 158–9, 159t, 164, 165, Bueno de Mesquita, Bruce, 180 166, 171 Buganda, 10 success from representational blockage in bureaucrats, see public officials Congress party, 172, 186–8, 255 Burundi, 17 Balimikis, 17, 190, 191 BAMCEF (Backward and Minority Chabal, Patrick, 48, 85 Community Employees Federation), Chamars, 17 144–5, 148, 150, 155, 164, 165, 186, as aggregate caste category, 168–9 192 BSP and, 22, 143, 145, 151, 168–70, Bariyas, 289 188–9, 231–2, 242, 258, 259–61, 288–9 Barth, Frederik, 37, 95 distribution across Indian states, 162t, Bates, Robert, 8 168–9 beneficiaries, aggregate, 69–70 literacy rates among, 188, 191 beneficiaries, individual, 54, 56, 69–70 in Punjab, 22, 168–9, 190, 191–2, 258 Breton, Albert, 8 subdivisions among, 168–9, 185, 190 bhagyadari (share), 206 in UP, 22, 185, 188–9, 258–60, 288

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Chhibber, Pradeep, 255–6, 266–7 SCs incorporation, intraparty Christian Scheduled Castes, 205 competition and, 251–7 Christians, 149, 278t Sikhs and, 250–1 class split of, into Congress (O) and Congress consumption patterns, taste and, 37 (I), 253–4 dress associated with, 42, 44 upper castes in, 211, 225, 226, 247, name and, 39 249–50 speech associated with, 41 Constitution, Indian, 178, 198 classes constructivist approaches to ethnic identity, (other) backward (OBC), xvii 2, 45, 62, 91–3, 97–8, 287–92 as castes, xvii corruption clientelism, 51 patronage and, 50–1 definition, 51 rent seeking and, 50–1 distinguished from “patronage,” 51 Corruption Perception Index, 7n13 corporate/collective, 69 Cox, Gary, 244–5 coalitions differentiated, 97, 220 Dahya, Badr, 74 minimum winning, 107 Dalit, xvii, 149, 151 oversize, 107 meaning of, xvii, 149 uniform, 97, 220 Dalit Panthers, 149 colonial rule Dalit Sangarsh Samiti (DSS), 166, 193 castes and, 77, 155n32, 252 Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangarsh Samiti ethnic favouritism influenced by, 77–8 (DS-4), 144–5, 149, 164, 166, 192–3 Communist Party of India (CPI), 282 Daloz, Jean-Pascal, 85 Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPM), De Zwart, Frank, 130 191, 200, 218–19, 276, 282 decentralization, 81, 115, 126n38, 199 Communist Party of India Marxist-Leninist democracy, definition of, 6 (CPI-ML), 218–19, 282 Democratic Party (of Uganda), 291n9 Congress party, 197, 199, 220, 289 Dharalas, 289 All India Congress Committee (AICC) of, Dhobis, 258 247–9, 248t Dhusia, 258 alliances of, 241–2, 269, 290 dikus (outsiders), 281 BJP and organizational decay of, 266–7 district superintendent of police (SP), 119, BSP alliance with, 241–2 120, 129 centralized organization of, 247–8, 254 DMK, see Dravida Munnetra Kazagham competitive organization of, 246, 247, Downs, Anthony, 35–6, 95 249–51, 253–4, 255 Dravida Munnetra Kazagham (DMK), 18, Congress Working Committee of, 249n4 40 constitution (1908) of, 247–8 caste divisions and, 278–80, 278t, 279t constitution (1920) of, 249, 249n4 Congress party versus, 276, 277–8, 278t corruption alleged against, 205–6, 214 founding of, 275–6 DMK, Tamil Nadu and, 276, 277–8, 278t leadership of, 278 economic reforms of, 117 organizational (competitive) structure of, elections in, 249–51, 254 23–4, 278, 280–1, 280t 1996 election campaign, 204–6 representational profile of, 278–9, 278t, Karnataka and, 246, 253–4 279t as multiethnic party, 151, 155, 166 target ethnic category of, 23, 262, 276 National Congress Committee of, 247 variation in vote for, 23, 26f, 27f, 277 Non-Brahmin Federation and, 250–1 Dreze, Jean, 126 Provincial Committee of, 248–9, 248t DS-4, see Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangarsh SC elite blocked in Punjab by, 172, 181, Samiti 184, 190–2, 255 SC elite blocked in UP by, 172, 180–1, Echeverri-Gent, John, 125 184, 186–8, 198–9, 255 ecological inference (EI) method, 15, 27, SCs and, 23, 30, 151, 152, 155, 157–8, 225 224, 229–30, 233, 243, 303–9

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education, 120–1, 128–9, 131 governance, 203, 204, 204t, 205, 206–8, electoral system 209f, 300–1t FPTP system and, 14, 87, 98, 145–6 Gujarat, 264, 268–9, 275, 289–90 in India, 145–6 Gujjar, 214, 290 proportional (PR) system and, 14, 86–7 Gupta, Akhil, 137 Election Commission of India, 141, 230 Gupta, Chandra Bhanu, 253 injunctions against use of caste and communal rhetoric, 219 Harijan, meaning of, xvii intraparty elections for parties forced by, Hardgrave, Robert, 218 261n Hardin, Russell, 8n17 elites Harijans, 281, 289, 290 definition of, 11–12 Harrison, Selig, 218 in patronage-democracies, 49 Haryana, 20f, 21, 146t, 147, 165, 166 Ernst, Robert, 74 Hausa-Fulanis, 9 ethnic category Hechter, Michael, 8 definition of, 2–3 Hindi, 166–7, 276–7, 296–9 redefinition of, 2, 63, 92–6, 97, 148–50, Hindus 287–92 BJP vote and, 23, 25f, 215, 263–5, 264n4 single and composite, 4, 17 Muslims versus, 215, 265–6 size of, 2, 14, 29, 62, 81, 91, 97–8 population, 23, 24f, 25f visibility of, 81 Shiv Sena and, 264, 264n4 ethnic demography, 244–5, 286, 287, Hinich, Melvin, 36 288–92 Hispanics, 4 ethnic favouritism Holeyas, 17, 192 aggregate beneficiaries and, 69–70 Horowitz, Donald, 2n, 3n3, 5n6, 8–9, 223, colonial rule and, 77–8 287 culture and, 78–9 Hoshiarpur, 236–7, 298t decentralization, limited information and, Hotelling, Harold, 95 81 Huntington, Samuel, 6n11 equilibrium of, 12, 49, 64–7 Hutus, 17 networks and, 71–6, 81 hypothesis construction and testing, 15–16, ethnic group, see ethnic category 160–1, 286 Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Horowitz), 3n3, 5n6, 8–9 ideology, as information shortcut, 35–6 ethnic party Igbos, 9 definition of, 3–5, 3n3 Indian National Congress, see Congress multiethnic party versus, 4–5, 5n6 party nonethnic party versus, 3–4 information, limited expressive voting, definition of, 224 definition of, 33 Ezhava, 218 ethnic categorization and, 29, 33–46 equilibrium of ethnic favouritism and, 49, 64–7 Fiorina, Morris, 83 institutional legacies and, 76–9 first-past-the-post (FPTP) system, 14, 87, networks and, 71–6 98, 145–6 Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP), 10 Foner, Philip, 75 Integrated Rural Development Programme founding elections, 46, 81 (IRDP), 124, 127, 131 Fox, Jonathan, 69–70 Irish, 58–9, 64 Fussell, Paul, 42 Jalali, Rita, 184 Gandhi, Indira, 211, 220, 249, 253, 265, Jammu and Kashmir, BSP in, 20f, 21, 165, 266, 290 166 Gandhi, Rajiv, 152, 153, 157, 265 Jana Sangh, 264 Gandhi, Sonia, 153 Janata Dal ( JD), 212, 216, 254, 266, 288 Gangwar, Bhanwar Singh, 152 in Bihar, 270–1 Gay, Robert, 69 in Gujarat, 268, 269

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in Karnataka, 182, 184, 195 Scheduled Castes (SCs) and, 173–4, 173t, Muslims targeted by, 217–18 176, 188, 191, 251 OBCs and, 290 in UP, 173t, 188, 225 in UP, 181 local government, Indian, 124, 129, 131, Janata Dal (G), 268–9 133–4, 272 Janata Dal United JD(U), 282 leverage, 2, 86–90, 226, 229–34, 244 Janata Party, 211, 221, 263 Lodh, 275 Jassi, R. L., 190 The Logic of Collective Action (Olson), 53 Jat, 250–1, 290 Lok Dal, 254 Jatav, 185, 258 Lupia, Arthur, 36 Jawahar Rozgar Yojna ( JRY), 125, 128 JD, see Janata Dal. Madigas, 192 Jharkhand Mukti Morcha ( JMM) Maharashtra, 148, 150, 159, 264, 264n4 founding of, 281 Malaysia, National Front in, 5 organizational (centralized) structure of, Mandal Commission, 205, 266 24, 285–6 mandal committees, 272–3 performance (in 2000) of, 23, 28f, 282–4, Manor, James, 251, 256 285, 316t Maratha, 216 as regionalist party, 18, 23, 30, 262–3 Mayawati, 152, 154, 155, 168, 226 Santals and, 284–5 Mazhabis, 190 Scheduled Tribes, fragmentation and, McCubbins, Matthew, 36 282, 283–5 mediated democracy, 68 variation in vote for, 18, 23, 28f, 282–5 Meenakshipuram, 265 Jhusia, 185, 258 Mexico, 70 Jones-Correa, Michael, 72–3 Mishra, Jagannath, 137–8 Mitchell, J. C., 73–4 Kabaka Yekka (KY), 10, 291n9 modernity, 8, 8n17 Kainth, Satnam Singh, 190 most backward castes (MBC), 290 Kammas, 218 Movemiento Revolucionario Tupaj Katari Kannada, 166, 192, 295 de Liberacion´ (MRTKL), 5 Kasﬁr, Nelson, 95–6 multiethnic party Katznelson, Ira, 76 Congress Party as national, 151, 155, 166, Kearney, Robert, 47 195 Keohane, Robert, 160 deﬁnition of, 3–4 Kerala, 126n38, 218, 265, 276 differentiated ethnic coalitions supported KHAM political coalition, 290 by, 87 Khare, R. S., 177 from ethnic party to, 16, 17 King, Gary, 15, 27, 160, 224, 306, 308 as inherently unstable, 99 Kohli, Atul, 184 Janata Dal as national, 195 Kohli Patels, 215 Munda, 284 Koris, 185, 258 Munger, Michael, 36 Krishna, Gopal, 256 Muslims, 149, 285 Kshatriya, 268, 269, 289–90 in Bihar, 270–1 Kshirsagar, S. S., 118–19 BSP and, 216–17, 261 Kumar, Meira, 151, 152, 155, 157, 199 Congress party and, 268, 270, 290 Kureel, 258 Hindus versus, 215, 265–6 Kurmis, 281, 284, 285 Janata Dal and, 217 Meenakshipuram and SC conversion to, Laitin, David, 77, 94n, 160n 265 Lanjouw, Peter, 124, 126 MY political coalition, Yadavs and, 290 Levi, Margaret, 9n in Tamil Nadu, 278 Lingayats, 215, 250 literacy Nadar, 279 Chamar rates of, 188, 191 Nairs, 218 in Karnataka, 173–4, 173t, 193 National Commission for Scheduled Castes in Punjab, 173t, 176, 254 and Scheduled Tribes, 27–8

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National Democratic Alliance (NDA), 282 definition of, 1–2, 48–9 National Election Studies (India), 26, 302 pork barrel politics versus, 51 National Front/Left Front alliance rent seeking versus, 50–1 (NF/LF), 5, 197, 199, 200, 205–6, 208, patronage-democracy, definition of, 1–2, 217–18 48–9 nationalism, 203, 204, 204t, 207t, 209, 209t, patwari, 129 289, 300t Peru, 69 networks Pilot, Rajesh, 214 ethnic favouritism and, 71–6, 81 police, 119–20, 126 factional, 105–6 pork barrel politics, 51 functional superiority of ethnic, 48 Posner, Daniel, 36, 48, 59, 85 kinship, 72 Post, Kenneth, 48 organization, 75–6 Praja Socialist Party (PSP), 276 spatial (clustering), 72–5 princely India, 256 New Haven, Connecticut, 52, 58–9, 85 private sector New York City, 72–3, 75–6 public sector versus, 6, 66–7, 116–18, NF/LF, see National Front/Left Front 117t, 118t, 119, 120t alliance proportional (PR) system, 14, 86–7 Nigeria, 5, 7, 9, 77–8, 95 public sector nonethnic party growth rate of, 117–18, 118t definition of, 3–4 job selection in, 119–21, 119t, 120t differentiated ethnic coalitions supported private sector versus, 6, 66–7, 116–18, by, 87 117t, 118t, 119, 120t

OBC, see other backward classes Rabushka, Alvin, 8 Olson, Mancur, 53 Rajputs, 289 opinion polls, 90, 245 Ram, Bali, 186 Oraon, 284 Ram, Jagjivan, 151, 152 other backward classes (OBC), xvii, 148–9, Ram, Kanshi, 143–5, 148, 149–50, 151, 152, 156t, 205, 217, 219, 221 154, 157, 164–5, 168, 186, 193, 234, BJP and, 266–7, 267t, 269, 270–2, 274–5 235–7, 258–60 BSP and, 217 Ramdassias, 145, 168–9, 189, 190, 191, 192 DMK and, 279 Ramjanmabhoomi movement, 263 forwards among, 290 ranked versus unranked social systems, JD and, 290, 291 17–18 JMM and, 279 Rashtriya Janta Dal (RJD), 282, 290 Mandel Commission, government jobs Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), 263, and, 266 274–5 Reddis, 218 Panandikar, V. A., 118–19 rent seeking panchayat (village council), 124, 129, 140 corruption and, 50–1 Pradesh, Madhya, 272 Indian patronage-democracy and, 116, parliamentary election, 239, 242, 242t 126–7, 126n38, 129–39 parliamentary government, 145 local government, 131, 133–4 Parsis, 40 patronage politics versus, 50–1 party manifestos, 201–2, 212 state government and, 132–3 party organization Republican Party of India, 144 centralized, 108–11, 108f, 199, 246, 286 RJD, see Rashtriya Janata Dal competitive, 87–9, 102–8, 103f, 104f, 111, Root, Hilton, 137 246, 247, 249–51, 253–4, 255, 258, RSS, see Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh 272–3, 280–1 rural credit, 123, 127–8 Pasis, 185, 188, 188t, 261, 288, 296 Rwanda, 17 Paswan, Ram Vilas, 199, 288–9 patronage politics clientelism versus, 51 Saini, 217, 259 corruption versus, 50–51 Samajwadi Janata Party (SJP), 270–1, 282

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Samajwadi Party (SP), 197, 214, 254, 290 Spence, Michael, 35 BSP alliance with, 241, 260–1 Sri Lanka, 10 Samata Party, 282 SSP, see Samyukta Socialist Party Samyukta Socialist Party (SSP), 276 Stalin, M. K., 40 Santals, 284, 285 Stern, Nicholas, 124, 126 Satnamis, 169 Stokes, Susan, 69 Satyashodhak Samaj, 148 strategic voting Schaffer, Frederic, 52 Chamar voters and, 231–2, 238–9, 242 Schattschneider, E. E., 93 definition of, 224 Scheduled Castes (SCs) ecological inference method and, 308–9 definition of, 16 patronage-democracies and, 22, 30, BJP and, 267–9, 267t, 271 86–91, 243–5 Communist Party and, 219 Scheduled Caste voters and, 223–4, Congress party and, 23, 30, 151, 152, 155, 232–4, 237, 238–9, 240–3 157–8, 225 Subramanian, Narendra, 139 definition of, 16 success, definition of, 5–6 DMK, Tamil Nadu and, 278, 278t, 279t Swatantra Party, 276 efficacy of votes, 146t fragmentation of, 17, 167–8 Tajfel, Henri, 9 literacy rates of, 173–4, 173t, 176, 188, taluq committee, 280 251 Tamil Nadu, 18, 23, 26f, 27f, 167, 262–3, population of, 18–19, 19f, 147–9, 151, 266, 276 156t, 185 Telugu Desam, 211, 221 Scheduled Tribes, 156, 156t Tutsis, 17 BJP and, 267t, 268, 269, 271 fragmentation of, 284 Uganda, 10, 291n9 JMM and, 281, 283–4 United Kingdom Scottish National Party (SNP), 9n20, 10 class and, 39, 41 SCs, see Scheduled Castes Pakistani immigrants in, 74 secularism, 214 strategic voting in, 244 self-esteem, 9, 9n19, 61–2, 87, 227 United States, 8, 41, 72 Senegal, 7 Urdu, 185, 276 Seshan, T. N., 140 Shah, Ghanshyam, 269 Varshney, Ashutosh, 76 Sharief, Jaffer, 217 Verba, Sidney, 160 Sharma, Miriam, 126 village council, see panchayat Shepsle, Kenneth, 8 Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), 263 Shiv Sena, 264, 264n4 Vokkaliga, 217, 250 Sikh, 39, 145, 149, 167, 215 Jat, 250–1 Ramdassia, 168–9, 189, 190, 191, 192 Wade, Robert, 122, 136 Singh, Charan, 251, 254, 290 Weiner, Myron, 121, 126, 132n56, 135–6, Singh, Kalyan, 275 184, 257 Singh, Manmohan, 137, 215 Wolfinger, Raymond, 52, 58–9, 64, 85 Singh, Zail, 221 social choice theory, 93 Yadav, Laloo Prasad, 270 social identity theory, 9 Yadav, Mulayam Singh, 137, 214 social justice, 203–4, 204t, 205, 206, 207–8, Yadav, Yogendra, 290n 207t, 300t Yadavs, 137, 150, 214, 290 Soren, Shibhu, 284, 286 South Africa Zambia, 7, 26, 48, 59, 73–4, 85 African National Congress in, 5 zero-sum game, 257 Inkatha Freedom Party in, 10 Zulu, 10

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