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Methods in Mind Cognitive Neuroscience Michael S MD DALIM #854167 05/22/06 BLUE BEIGE MED.BROWN Methods in Mind Cognitive Neuroscience Michael S. Gazzaniga, editor Gary Lynch, Synapses, Circuits and the Beginning of Memory Barry E. Stein and M. Alex Meredith, The Merging of the Senses Richard B. Ivry and Lynn C. Robertson, The Two Sides of Perception Steven J. Luck, An Introduction to the Event-Related Potential Technique Roberto Cabeza and Alan Kingstone, eds., Handbook of Functional Neuroimaging of Cognition Carl Senior, Tamara Russell, and Michael S. Gazzaniga, eds., Methods in Mind Methods in Mind edited by Carl Senior, Tamara Russell, and Michael S. Gazzaniga The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England © 2006 Massachusetts Institute of Technology All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher. MIT Press books may be purchased at special quantity discounts for business or sales promotional use. For information, please email [email protected]. edu or write to Special Sales Department, The MIT Press, 55 Hayward Street, Cambridge, MA 02142. This book was set in Sabon by SNP Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Hong Kong and was printed and bound in the United States of America. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Methods in mind / edited by Carl Senior, Tamara Russell, and Michael S. Gazzaniga. p. cm.—(Cognitive neuroscience) ISBN 0-262-19541-0—ISBN 978-0-262-19541-6 (hbk. : alk. paper) 1. Cognitive neuroscience. 2. Magnetic brain stimulation. 3. Neuropharmacology. 4. Developmental psychology. I. Senior, Carl. II. Russell, Tamara. III. Gazzaniga, Michael S. IV. Series. QP360.5.M48 2006 612.8′233—dc22 2005056124 10987654321 Contents Preface: Cognitive Neuroscience: The Evolution of a Discipline vii 1 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Human Cognition 1 Lauren Stewart and Vincent Walsh 2 The Cognitive Neuropsychiatric Approach 27 Philip Shaw and Anthony S. David 3 Cognitive Neuroscience and Nonhuman Primates: Lesion Studies 43 Elisabeth A. Murray and Mark G. Baxter 4 Cognitive Neuropsychology and Computational Modeling: The Contribution of Computational Neuroscience to Understanding the Mind 71 Glyn W. Humphreys, Dietmar G. Heinke, and Eun Young Yoon 5 Skin Conductance: A Psychophysiological Approach to the Study of Decision Making 103 Nasir H. Naqvi and Antoine Bechara 6 Single Neurons and Primate Behavior 123 Robert H. Wurtz and Marc A. Sommer 7 Grid Computing and the Future of Neuroscience Computation 141 John D. Van Horn, James Dobson, Michael Wilde, Jeffrey Woodward, Yong Zhao, Jens Voeckler, and Ian Foster 8 Eye Movements 171 John M. Henderson vi Contents 9 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging 193 Peter A. Bandettini 10 Electroencephalography 237 Gina Rippon 11 Imaging Genetics 263 Venkata S. Mattay, Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg, and Daniel R. Weinberger 12 Magnetoencephalography 291 Krish D. Singh 13 The Chemistry of Cognition 327 Stephen D. Hall and Peyman Adjamian Contributors 355 Index 359 Preface: Cognitive Neuroscience: The Evolution of a Discipline Many years have passed since Phineas Gage lost his frontal lobes and gained his unusual kind of fame. Thanks in no small part to this man’s unfortu- nate accident, we now have an unparalleled understanding of the role of the frontal lobes specifically and cortical function in general. Our insatiable thirst for knowledge about cognitive behavior has driven the development of increasingly sophisticated tools to study human cognition; as investiga- tive methods have developed and cognitive processes have been explicated, cognitive neuroscience has flourished and evolved. In the “early days,” studies linking brain activity to a particular behav- ioral response filled the pages of many respectable journals. Examination of the hemodynamic response to motion perception, to tool naming, and so on, aided by evidence from comparative studies, laid the crucial foun- dation for the application of the tools that were to come. Scientific findings are strengthened when evidence from compara- tive approaches or techniques converges. In the case of cognitive neuro- science, empirical support and convergent evidence have come not only from studies of nonhuman primates but also from further afield. Indeed, the gradual convergence of other approaches under the rubric of cognitive neuroscience continues to this day. The book you now hold in your hands contains chapters written by leading authorities in the field who were given the express mandate to describe how their respective techniques could be integrated with a range of other tools neuroscientists have at their disposal. Thus Peter Bandettini (chapter 9) describes the possible routes we can take to link together the hemodynamic response with other measurable indices such as the galvanic skin response (GSR). This symbiotic relation- ship is elaborated by Nasir Naqvi and Antoine Bechara (chapter 5), who explore how the GSR can be used to address higher cognitive functions such as decision making. Krish Singh (chapter 12) details alternative uses of the viii Preface fMRI signal to constrain magnetoencephalography, thereby allowing us to better understand spatial, temporal, and frequency information mediating neural activity. Gina Rippon (chapter 10) highlights the potential benefit of using electroencephalography (EEG) to guide application of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), enabling us to create a virtual lesion not only at a particular cortical site but also at a specific frequency. Lauren Stewart and Vincent Walsh (chapter 1) elaborate on other applications of the TMS technique. Given the gathering consensus in the neuroscience community that differences in the frequency of neuronal oscillations are the “cognitive foot- print” of a particular task, selective disruption at a given frequency will allow us to test the necessity of a cortical network at two distinct levels of analysis. The importance of modeling and interrogating cortical networks is driven home by Glyn Humphreys, Dietmar Heinke, and Eun Young Yoon (chapter 4). We would be seriously remiss if we were to neglect the equally crucial role of innovation in the evolution of cognitive neuroscience. Indeed, in the last decade or so there has been a veritable explosion of innovation. A working knowledge of other techniques and what they can bring to the neu- roscience debate will fuel this innovation. Phillip Shaw and Anthony David (chapter 2) draw together clinical psychiatry, psychology, and neurology in their discussion of cognitive neuropsychiatry. Elisabeth Murray and Mark Baxter (chapter 3) and Robert Wurtz and Marc Sommer (chapter 6) remind us to appreciate the full importance of the study of nonhuman primates and how they can inform the study of human cognition. The continued evolution of cognitive neuroscience is also driven by innovative applications of particular techniques. To ensure that such applications be made transparent, the contributors to this volume were given a second mandate, to report on innovation in their respective specialist fields. As John Henderson (chapter 8) makes clear, the study of eye move- ments can do much to help us understand how visual attention drives what enters our complex cognitive system. Venkata Mattay, Andreas Meyer- Lindenberg, and Daniel Weinberger (chapter 11) report on the successful convergence of neuroimaging and genetic analysis, and discuss the creative potential of this fairly novel technique. Stephen Hall and Peyman Adjamian (chapter 13) examine the chemical underpinnings of cognitive processes. Many of these new neuroscience approaches clearly require, and have only been made possible in latter years by, a dramatic increase in comput- ix Preface ing power. With this in mind, Jack Van Horn and colleagues (chapter 7) describe how distributed or Grid computing allows us to analyze massive data sets in cyberspace. Clearly, the future of cognitive neuroscience looks exciting. We hope this book lets you see the potential of convergent technologies and share in this excitement. We are grateful to Barbara Murphy and Kate Blakinger of MIT Press for their tireless efforts (and for putting up with an endless barrage of emails). Methods in Mind 1 Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Human Cognition Lauren Stewart and Vincent Walsh Why Have So Many Different Techniques? The many different ways one can now investigate human brain function allow one to take snapshots of structure and function from different per- spectives. The particular snapshot one sees is determined by the temporal and spatial resolution of the technique being used and by whether one is recording activity from the brain or trying to interfere with or stimulate the brain to change stimulus processing or behavioral responses. The relative spatial and temporal resolutions of various neuroimaging and recording techniques at one’s disposal are vast. But the claimed resolution of a tech- nique is only a partial guide to its utility. One might consider that the higher the spatial resolution, the more precise and therefore fundamental is a measure. One might also think that sampling brain activity at millisecond resolution is self-evidently better than doing so in longer time windows. A consequence of thinking in this way is that one expects the results obtained using different techniques to converge on explanations of sensory and cog- nitive function, and that there is, in some sense, a hierarchy of explanation dependent
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