Language and Literacy Development in Children Who Are Deaf or Hearing Impaired by Sandra J. Briggle

Understanding more about students with do not have a strong knowledge base about learners who are deaf or hearing impairments can improve the quality hearing impaired. To ensure that of education teachers provide. students who are deaf receive the

ince the enactment of Public lic schools currently have a hearing Sandra J. Briggle teaches full-inclu- S Law 94-142 in 1975, now re- loss is difficult because hearing sion kindergarten in the Sylvania ferred to as the Individuals with impairment is not reported sepa- City school district in Toledo, Ohio. Disabilities Education Act, more rately for students with multiple She completed her undergraduate children who are deaf are attend- disabilities. Of all Americans, how- degree at Miami University in Ox- ing public schools instead of resi- ever, ten percent have a hearing ford and her master’s degree in early dential schools for the deaf. Calcu- loss. Because deafness is a low- childhood education at the Univer- lating how many children in pub- incidence disability, many teachers sity of Toledo.

68 Kappa Delta Pi Record • Winter 2005 quality education they deserve, parents or hearing children of hear- • Use written language to com- educators must understand the ing parents. Because of these dif- municate within the family learning needs of this population. ferences in language exposure, and classroom. Informal notes, Through this understanding, children who are deaf in homes journal entries, and drawings educators can work to create a with hearing caregivers com- can serve as effective communi- new generation of highly literate mence their language learning at cation in both settings. students who are deaf or hearing a later age than their peers • Keep up-to-date on learning impaired. (Marschark 2001). sign language. This includes Students who are prelingually In families where parents are enrollment in refresher and deaf (either born deaf or became learning a new language, such as more advanced classes. deaf before acquiring language) or American Sign Language (ASL) or While most regular education hearing impaired, with no other Signed English (SE), with which to teachers are far from fluent signers, disabilities, are a diverse group of communicate with their child, chil- those who learn and use basic, students. Though a multitude of dren have a tendency to acquire common signs show deaf students factors should be considered when inconsistent or incorrect linguistic their interest in communicating. teaching such students, a primary input (Kuntze 1998; Marschark Students who are deaf will have an one is language development. Stu- 2001). This early language depriva- interpreter, but teachers can create dents who are deaf acquire lan- tion explains the troublesome sta- a feeling of belonging by learning guage in different ways, depending tistic that 90 percent of deaf chil- sign themselves and teaching sign on the home environment. Lan- dren born into homes with only to their classes. Teachers should guage development plays an im- hearing caregivers experience de- not be afraid to ask students, inter- portant role in a student’s literacy lays in language acquisition com- preters, and parents for assistance learning. pared to hearing children in hear- with signing. They are wonderful ing families and deaf children in resources. Families Who Are Hearing deaf families (Kuntze 1998; Meier Some commonalities exist in and Newport 1990). Because most Parallels to Children language development between children who are deaf do not have Who Are Hearing students who are deaf and students deaf parents (Moores 2001), it is Literacy development in chil- who are hearing. Language devel- not surprising to see language dren who are deaf or hearing im- opment is contingent on frequent, delays from these children. Many paired is a multifaceted issue. consistent, and accessible commu- actually are language deprived up There are many parallels to literacy nication. These factors are the until their school exposure, which development in hearing children, same for children of parents who might be their first experience with as well as some elements unique to are able to hear, as well as children a competent language model. children who are hearing impaired of parents who are not able to hear. To counteract the apparent or deaf (Ewoldt 1985; Padden and The mode of communication language deficit in hearing fami- Ramsey 1993; Rottenberg 2001; (signed or spoken language) is not lies with children who are deaf, Rottenberg and Searfoss 1992, a factor (Marschark 2001). Katasse (1997) recommended a 1993). Understanding these com- However, children who are variety of strategies to provide monalities and differences allows deaf and born to hearing parents meaningful language experi- teachers to plan more appropriate, generally start learning language ences. Teachers should share meaningful literacy activities in later, and with less consistent and these suggestions with families, their classrooms. less useful experiences. Such chil- as well as remember them in their Students who are deaf will dren do not share a native language own teaching: benefit from many of the literacy with their family. Their hearing • Model social and public en- activities already in place within loss, on average, is not identified counters as an adult who is the regular education classroom. until their first birthday (Marschark deaf would. Using notes in res- For younger students, time to ex- 2001). These children are exposed taurants and stores is an im- plore writing, drawing, books, and to less linguistically rich environ- portant way to model success- environmental print is crucial. ments than deaf children of deaf ful, nonverbal communications. Story time (translated into sign) and

Kappa Delta Pi Record • Winter 2005 69 journal writing using “invented is the reliance by children who are initial consonants in words, using spelling” are appropriate activities deaf on literacy skills, such as writ- the strategy of sounding out a word for young children who are deaf. ing, as a mode of social communi- is not a useful approach. Seem- Children who are deaf or cation (Maxwell 1985; Rottenberg ingly, however, children who are hearing impaired, like their peers and Searfoss 1992). Evidence from deaf do make generalizations with full hearing, participate in Rottenberg and Searfoss (1992) in- about beginning sounds based on literacy events and use written dicated that children who are deaf the visual cues provided by the language in many typical ways. use literacy as a way to learn about hand shape of the sign for the word Children who are deaf demon- and gain access to a world where (Ruiz 1995; Williams 1994). While strate the following uses of lan- the majority of people use a verbal this works for some words, such as guage (signed or spoken): mode of communication. When names, the strategy has been ob- • to interact socially with peers attempts at signed communica- served to be overgeneralized by and adults while writing; tion fail, children rely on drawing children to include other words • to provide information about without sign–initial consonant cor- written text, to label written respondence (Ruiz 1995). creations, and to monitor the A similar, more developed construction of text (Williams “Finger spelling strategy is observed as children 1994); use finger spelling to record • to request assistance with writ- should be words in print (Padden and ing tasks from adults and encouraged as a Ramsey 1993; Ruiz 1995; Williams peers; 1994). As children make the con- • to challenge others’ knowledge viable strategy nection between the finger spell- of literacy; and when presenting ings used in daily communication • to evaluate literary works (Wil- new words in the and the written English language, liams 1994). select, high frequency, personally Similar parallels can be drawn classroom.” important words begin to appear for early literacy experiences with in their writing (Padden and reading (Rottenberg 2001; Williams Ramsey 1993; Ruiz 1995). Because 1994). Like their hearing peers, some finger spelling is part of children who are deaf show an in- or writing to express themselves daily communication using ASL, terest in print and drawings (Maxwell 1985; Rottenberg many children are exposed to a (Rottenberg 2001; Williams 1994). Searfoss 1992). For children who variety of such words from birth. Within print-rich classrooms and are not yet able to write or draw a Using these words in written for- supportive homes, hearing impair- clear message, environmental mat shows a more developed un- ments and deafness do not signifi- print—such as name tags, charts, derstanding of the relationship cantly differentiate the process of signs, and labels—is shown to a between signed and written lan- literacy development (Ewoldt 1985; communication partner to convey guage (Padden and Ramsey 1993). Padden and Ramsey 1993; Rotten- a message (Rottenberg and Linking language (ASL) with berg 2001; Rottenberg and Searfoss Searfoss 1992). This is a cultural printed text (English) creates a 1992, 1993). However, teachers phenomenon that continues connection that is useful in read- should remember that students also throughout the life of adults who ing and writing new or unfamil- use literacy in ways unique to their are deaf. iar words (Padden and Ramsey deafness. Despite the frequent use of 1993). written communication by chil- Finger spelling, therefore, Unique Strategies for dren who are deaf, the reliance on should be encouraged as a viable Children Who Are Deaf letter-sound relationships in writ- strategy when presenting new Perhaps the most significant ten language provides a significant words in the classroom. Hearing difference between the use of lit- challenge for emerging writers with peers also find this technique eracy skills in children who are hearing impairments (Williams helpful for remembering difficult hearing and children who are deaf 1994). Without the ability to hear spellings and words.

70 Kappa Delta Pi Record • Winter 2005 Classroom Practice dent; visual cues are difficult to ing hearing peers to sign increases When considering the learning see when looking into the light. the amount of social interaction environment for students who are • Use closed-captioned videos. and directly affects learning. Hav- deaf or hearing impaired, keep in • Present new vocabulary to stu- ing a student who is deaf should be mind the commonalities and dif- dents prior to the lesson. This a learning experience for everyone. ferences discussed in this article. allows students to recognize Being prepared and understanding Opportunities to read and enjoy the words and signs during the more about students with hearing books alone, with friends, and with lesson and thus maximize impairments only can improve teachers are important learning ex- comprehension. the quality of education teachers periences for all students. Explor- • Teach students to raise hands provide. ing the written word through draw- and be identified before speak- ing and writing also benefits all ing or responding in class. This students. Make sure that students allows students who are deaf to have time to discuss their literacy know who is speaking. “Provide written, experiences amongst themselves By making some small changes as well as and with others. If you are just in your daily teaching, you can cre- learning to sign, use written notes ate a more visual classroom envi- sign labels for combined with signing to commu- ronment. These visual strategies classroom nicate. If your student is unable to not only will benefit students with come up with a sign for an object, hearing impairments, but also will objects.” assist him or her in finding the writ- provide additional input for hear- ten word or an actual example, ing students. Visual input always and then look up the sign to- must be considered when planning gether. Provide written, as well as lessons and activities. Alter your References sign labels for classroom objects. story time so that you can sign as Ewoldt, C. 1985. A descriptive study of the This will help connect sign to spo- you read, or have an interpreter developing literacy of young hearing- impaired children. Volta Review 87(5): 109– ken language. sign the story as you read it aloud. 26. Katasse, C. 1997. Deaf children and English: Organize your classroom to If using an interpreter, make sure More ways parents can help. Perspectives in Education and Deafness 15(4): 4–5. maximize visual input. The follow- that he or she is signing near the Kuntze, M. 1998. Literacy and deaf children: The language question. Topics in Language ing suggestions help ensure that book. This shows the connection Disorders 18(4): 1–15. Marschark, M. 2001. Language development in students receive information in a between the written words, the oral children who are deaf: A research synthesis. Alexandria, VA: National Association of State clear, efficient manner: story, the pictures, and the signs. Directors of Special Education. ERIC ED 455 Write key words, phrases, and Exploring students’ names to show 620. • Maxwell, M. 1985. Some functions and uses of assignments on the board. the interrelatedness of sign and literacy in the deaf community. Language in Society 14(2): 205–21. • Use visual aids whenever pos- English is another high-interest, Meier, R. P., and E. L. Newport. 1990. Out of the hands of babes: On a possible sign sible to provide additional ac- successful activity. advantage in language acquisition. Language 66(1): 1–23. cess to information presented Moores, D. F. 2001. Educating the deaf: Psychology, principles, and practices, 5th ed. in class. Final Thoughts Boston: Houghton-Mifflin. Padden, C. A., and C. L. Ramsey. 1993. Deaf • Use an overhead projector Overall, having a student who culture and literacy. American Annals of the rather than a chalkboard. This is deaf in your classroom should Deaf 138(2): 96–99. Rottenberg, C. J. 2001. A deaf child learns to allows you to face the students not dramatically change the way read. American Annals of the Deaf 146(3): 270–75. rather than have your back to you teach. Providing a develop- Rottenberg, C. J., and L. W. Searfoss. 1992. Becoming literate in a preschool class: them. mentally appropriate, print-rich Literacy development of hearing-impaired children. Journal of Reading Behavior 24(4): • Arrange seating so that stu- environment is integral to literacy 463–79. Rottenberg, C. J., and L. W. Searfoss. 1993. How dents with hearing impair- success. Exposure to competent hard-of-hearing and deaf children learn their names. American Annals of the Deaf ments can see and hear the language models, whether inter- 138(4): 358–61. majority of what is occurring preters, teachers, or peers, encour- Ruiz, N. T. 1995. A young deaf child learns to write: Implications for literacy development. during class. Make sure that ages language development. Op- The Reading Teacher 49(3): 206–17. Williams, C. L. 1994. The language and literacy the light source (window or portunities to respond and ask worlds of three profoundly deaf preschool children. Reading Research Quarterly 29(2): open door) is behind the stu- questions in class also help. Teach- 125–55.

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