Assessment of the Challenges of Water Supply and Sanitation in Uncontrolled Residential Developments of Huruma Estate, Nairobi County

ASSESSMENT OF THE CHALLENGES OF WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION IN UNCONTROLLED RESIDENTIAL DEVELOPMENTS OF HURUMA ESTATE, NAIROBI COUNTY.

KAHARIRI MORRIS MAINA

N36/2772/2010

Research Project Submitted in Partial Fulfillment for the Requirement for the Award of Bachelor Degree in Environmental Planning and Management of Kenyatta University

JUNE, 2014

DECLARATION.

This project is my original work and has never been submitted for any academic award whatsoever in any other university.

Signature...... Date......

Kahariri Morris Maina

N36/2772/2010

Department of Environmental Planning and Management

APPROVAL.

This research project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the university supervisor

Signature...... Date......

Mr. Mohammed Deckow

Department of Environmental Planning and Management

DEDICATION I dedicate this project to my beloved mum Virginia Gathoni for her great love and support through the project.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is with sincere gratitude that I would like to acknowledge the following personalities and institution. Special and great thanks go to the Almighty Father for the strength and the wisdom He accorded me throughout the project period.

Special thanks to my beloved mum for tirelessly supporting me financially, emotionally and spiritually throughout my course. All her hard work and effort in provision of moral and financial support was not in vain. I celebrate and cherish you.

I would like to express my appreciation to entire staff of the department of Environmental Planning and Management of Kenyatta University especially my supervisor, Mr. Mohammed Deckow. I sincerely acknowledge his guidance throughout the project research period. My sincere appreciation goes to Mr. Allan Kirui, our course coordinator for his patience in taking his time to prepare us on how to go through the project.

I would also like to thank the respondents who provided me with vital information sought after by this study: the residents of Huruma and the Staff of Nairobi Water and Sewerage Company. I appreciate.

Lastly, I would like to thank the entire EPM Class of 2014.We have lived liked a family for the last four years and you offered worthy support and company. God bless all.

ABSTRACT. The struggle for water and its resources have progressively increased over periods of time. This is majorly attributed to the fact that the resource, as vital as it is, faces excessive extraction resulting from rapid population growth as well as urbanisation and industrialization trends. In Kenya, several families face many problems related to water and sanitation services. In the study area the project resolved in finding out the various challenges of water supply and sanitation in the uncontrolled residential developments. A sample size of 65 people was taken to represent the entire population in the area using proximate representative estimation. Systematic random sampling technique was then used, sampling pattern being every fifth house on the right and tenth house to the left of the line transect. Snowball sampling was used in institutional interviews to identify the most appropriate respondents. Findings were analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft excel and represented in the form of bar graphs and pie charts. Increased urban population has a direct impact on water supply and sanitation in Huruma Estate as it was found to be a major cause of this challenge with 55%in agreement to this. Other major causes of inadequate water supply and sanitation included infrastructural developments at 20%, depleted water towers and inadequate dump sites at 15 % and low levels of income at 10%.

The study also looks forward to giving recommendations of use of water storage devices such as water tanks as a short term strategy and an extension of water pipes distribution lines to be in direct proportion with population growth. Community led total sanitation mechanisms that would help correct the situation is also recommended.

TABLE OF CONTENT DECRALATION………………………………………………………………………………….ii

DEDICATION ...... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iv

ABSTRACT...... v

A LIST OF FIGURES ...... x

LIST OF PLATES ...... xi

LIST OF TABLES ...... xii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background ...... 1

1.2 Statement of the problem ...... 2

1.3 Research questions ...... 3

1.4 Objectives of the study ...... 3

1.5 Research premises ...... 3

1.6 Justification of the study ...... 4

1.7 Significance of the study ...... 4

1.8 Scope of the study ...... 5

1.9 Operational Definitions ...... 5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7

2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 7

2.1.1 Access to sanitation ...... 8

2.2 Institutional frameworks and role of stakeholders in water and sanitation sector...... 9

2.2.1 Role of the government ...... 9

2.2.2 Community roles ...... 11

2.2.3 Role of the NGOS and civil organizations ...... 12

2.3 Causes of inadequate water supply and sanitation ...... 12

2.3.1 Uncompetitive water and sanitation tariffs ...... 12

2.3.2 Demographic pressures on water and sanitation management ...... 13

2.3.3 Inadequate investments and infrastructures ...... 13

2.3.4 Depletion of natural water resources for urban supply ...... 14

2.4 Effects of inadequate water and sanitation supply ...... 14

2.4.1 Health impacts of inadequate water and sanitation ...... 14

2.4.2 Socio-economic effects of inadequate water and sanitation ...... 15

2.5 Theoretical Framework ...... 15

2.5.1 Application of the theoretical Model ...... 17

2.6 Conceptual Framework ...... 17

CHAPTER THREE: AREA OF STUDY ...... 19

3.1 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION ...... 19

3.1.1 Location and Size ...... 19

3.1.2 Topography and Drainage ...... 19

3.1.3 Geology ...... 20

3.1.4 Climate...... 20

3.1.5 Vegetation ...... 20

3.2 SOCIO ECONOMIC DESCRIPTION ...... 21

3.2.1 Population Size and Structure...... 21

3.2.2 Huruma Area Profile ...... 21

1.3 Resource Potential ...... 23

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 24

4.1 Introduction ...... 24

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4.2 Research design ...... 24

4.3 Nature and Sources of Data ...... 24

4.3.1 Nature of Data ...... 24

4.3.2 Sources of Data ...... 25

4.4 Sampling and Design Procedure ...... 26

4.4.1 Simple Random Sampling ...... 26

4.4.2 Snowball sampling ...... 26

4.5 Data Collection Methods ...... 26

4.5.1 Questionnaires (Appendix 2) ...... 26

4.5.2 Photographs (Table of plates) ...... 26

4.5.3 Focus group Discussion (Appendix 3) ...... 27

4.5.4 Interviews (Appendix 1) ...... 27

4.5.5 Checklist (Appendix 4) ...... 27

4.6 Sample Size and Selection Procedure ...... 27

4.7 Constraints to Data Collection ...... 28

4.7.1 Financial Constraints ...... 28

4.7.2 Strict Regulations and insecurity concerns ...... 28

CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSI AND DISCUSSION ...... 29

5.1 Causes of water supply and sanitation problems...... 29

5.1.1 Rapid increase in population ...... 29

5.1.2 Increased infrastructural developments ...... 31

5.1.3 Low levels of income visa vies Uncompetitive charges ...... 32

5.1.4 Depleted water towers and inadequate dumping sites ...... 33

5.2 Impacts of inadequate sanitation facilities and water in Huruma Estate...... 35

5.2.1 Overexploitation by private service providers ...... 35

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5.2.2 Prevalence of disease outbreaks ...... 36

5.2.3 Unsustainable livelihoods ...... 37

5.3 Roles of stakeholders and avenues of community participation in promotingadequatewater supply and sanitation ...... 37

5.3.1 Role of the government ...... 37

5.3.2 Role of the community members ...... 39

5.3.3 Role of NGOs ...... 39

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 42

6.1 Summary of the Findings ...... 42

6.2 Conclusions ...... 42

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 43

6.3.1 Government ...... 43

6.3.2 Private sector and NGOs ...... 43

6.3.3 Community members ...... 44

REFERENCES ...... 47

APPENDICES ...... 50

Appendix 1: Interview schedule ...... 50

Appendix 2: Household Questionnaire...... 51

Appendix 3:Focus Group Discussion……………………………………..……………………..55

Appendix 4:Checklist of available water sources……………………………….……………….56

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Theoretical model representing the theory of planning and building cities ...... 16 Figure 2.2: Conceptual model showing improved, adequate and equitable water and sanitation ...... 18 Figure 3.1: Map of Huruma Estate and neighboring Estates ...... 19 Figure 5.1: Age distribution in the area ...... 30 Figure 5.2: Various sources of water in Huruma Estate ...... 31 Figure 5.3: Monthly salary distribution in Huruma Estate ...... 33 Figure 5.4: Causes of Inadequate Water Supply and Sanitation in Huruma Estate ...... 34 Figure 5.5: Impacts of inadequate water supply and sanitation in Huruma ...... 37 Figure 5.6: Level of satisfaction with Government roles ...... 38

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 3.1: Educational institution in Huruma ...... 22 Plate 5.1 Example of highrise buildings some still under construction ...... 30 Plate 5.2: An example of poor access pavements and roads...... 32 Plate 5.3: A section of Mathare River and Dandora Dumping site ...... 34 Plate 5.4: Middlemen water vendors in Huruma Estate ...... 35 Plate 5.5: Waste water flow in Huruma ...... 36 Plate 5.6: Part of a treatment plant in Kasonovo Bio centre ...... 40 Plate 5.7: Water kiosk managed by a private group in the estate ...... 41

LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1: Umande Trust established Bio Centres ...... 40

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AWSB Athi Water Services Board

CBOs Community Based Organizations

EMCA Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act

KEWASNET Kenya Water and Sanitation Civil Society Network

MoWI Ministry of Water and Irrigation

MPHS Ministry of Public Health and Sanitation

NEMA National Environment Management Authority

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

NCWSC Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company

NWSS National Water Services Strategy

SPAs Services Provision Agreements

WASREB Water Services Regulatory Board

WHO World Health Organization

UNICEF United Nations Intentional Children’s Education Fund

WRMA Water Resources Management Authority WSBs Water Services Boards

WSPs Water Services Providers

WSRS Water Sector Reform Secretariat

WSTF Water Services Trust Fund

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WUAs Water User Associations

MDGs Millennium Development Goals

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme

JICA Japan International Coop oration

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background Due to the rapid population growth and uncontrolled residential development witnessed in most developing countries, the global urban environment is seriously being degraded in terms of service delivery (UN-Water 2007). Water supply and sanitation are the public utilities that have been worst hit by this scenario. These facilities are necessary commodities in household and municipal activities (FAO, 2008).Though continuity of water supply and sanitation is taken for granted in most developed countries, it is a severe problem in many developing countries, where some times water is only provided for a few hours every day or a few days a week (UN-Water,2007).Water is intrinsically interconnected with the MDGs and basic sanitation was added to the catalogue at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg. ‘To halve by 2015 the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation’ is one of the numerical and time-bound targets defined for the MDGs. (WSSD, 2002)

In today’s world of 6 billion people (World Bank 2010), providing this water and sanitation facilities is already a serious challenge, straining management systems and institutions. Water supply and sanitation in Indonesia is characterized by poor levels of access and service quality. Over 40 million people lack access to an improved water source and more than 110 million of the country’s 240 million population has no access to improved sanitation. With only 2% access to sewerage in urban areas is one of the lowest in the world among middle-income countries. (WHO, 2010)

In Africa, water shortages are related to both under-development of potentially available water resources and their uneven distribution. This is coupled up with an unrelenting population growth rate of 3 % per year which is a major factor in on-going water and sanitation problems. Water supply services in Zambia’s peri-urban areas vary widely from one settlement to another even within the same town. Water supply systems have been poorly maintained in the last 20 years because local authorities and ministry

1 departments as providers have absconded their capacity and professionalism to operate and sustain these services efficiently and effectively (Nwasco, 2005).

Kenya has experienced tremendous population increases in the last 40 years. The annual population growth in Kenya was last reported at 2.63% in 2010 (World Bank, 2010). In 2009, it was indexed at 2.58% according to a World Bank Report of 2010. The annual population growth rate in Kenya was reported at 2.58% in 2008 (World Bank, 2011).It is important to note that urban growth has been at the rate of five per cent in the last forty years. In 1963, the urban population in Kenya was low at 8%. Currently 34% of the population lives in the urban centres. Projections show that by 2030, 50% of Kenyans will be living in the urban areas. (UN-Habitat, 2008)

Huruma estate, that has experienced rapid residential developments in Nairobi, faces inadequate water supply and sanitation as a major challenge. Being in Nairobi, it majorly receives its water from Ndakaini Dam Sasumua Dam and Ruiru dam. These dams’ ability to supply water continues to face great challenges due to the ever increasing demands. The sewerage system in the estate is in a dying state as it is already overstretched to its limits. The residents of this area are therefore in dire need of safe, clean and consistent supply of water and adequate sanitation facilities.

1.2 Statement of the problem Huruma Estate lies in Nairobi County in Starehe District and is composed of both formal and informal settlements. The estate has experienced an immense increase in uncontrolled residential development thus straining the ability of Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company (NCWSC) to adequately supply water and sanitation facilities to the residents. The constitution of Kenya safeguards adequate access to water for all citizens as a basic human right. The reality, however, is far from the aspirations and entitlements of many Huruma urban dwellers particularly those in the uncontrolled settlements. The dynamics in Huruma estate which has undergone an increased residential development are unique as the availability of water and sanitation is perceived as a luxury rather than a right.

1.3 Research questions The study attempted to answer the following questions. a) What are the causes of water supply and sanitation problems in the informal settlement? b) What is the impact of water supply and sanitation problem in the informal settlement? c) What policies are in place to ensure access of water and sanitation in the informal settlements? d) What can be done to address water and sanitation challenges in the informal settlement?

1.4 Objectives of the study The following are the specific objectives that guided the study. a) To determine the causes of water supply and sanitation problems. b) To establish the impacts of inadequate sanitation facilities and water in Huruma Estate. c) To identify roles of stakeholders and avenues of community participation in promoting adequate water supply and sanitation. d) To recommend mitigation measures in dealing with inadequate water supply and sanitation.

1.5 Research premises The study was guided by the following premises.

 There are inadequate water supply and sanitation facilitiesin the uncontrolled residential development of Huruma Estate.  Inadequate sanitation facilities and water supply in Huruma Estate has impacts on the residents.  Increased urban population has a direct impact on water supply and sanitation in Huruma Estate.

1.6 Justification of the study

The focus of this study is the uncontrolled residential developments of Huruma estate impacts of inadequate water and sanitation have almost culminated into a crisis. Uncontrolled urban residential development has led to constrains in the provision of water and sanitation hence deteriorating the living standards of urban residents. Although the majority of people without safe water and sanitation live in rural areas, rapid rural- urban migration has compromised the ability of urban residents to have access to these facilities. Urban planners and decision makers are always under pressure to improve water and sanitation facilities, since the threat of epidemic due to waterborne diseases grows when population increases. Failure to undertake this project, unplanned residential developments will continue piling up and thus piling more pressure on the existing sanitation facilities and water resources leading to low standards of living and further degradation of the urban environment.

1.7 Significance of the study My project aims to improve urban planning for residential settlements that will respond to inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities by promoting inclusion and empowerment of the urban poor and other excluded residents in decision making. The research intends to study various challenges of water supply and sanitation such as inadequate infrastructure development and demographic pressures on water and sanitation management, depletion of water resources and inadequate dump sites in the process of urban supply and deterioration of infrastructure among others and how they contribute to the problem of inadequate water supply and sanitation facilities.

The research result will inform the stakeholders such as the residents and sector actors such as Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company (NWSC), Nairobi City County Planning Department and Athi Water Services Board among others to embrace dialogue and informed planning across the water and sanitation sectors. The outcomes and the associated outputs of this research will be used by NCWSC and City Planning Department to equip its partners through mass education on proper residential development planning, economized water use, hygienic sanitation practices and

4 participatory planning among communities to engage with sector providers and policy makers in improving access to water and sanitation.

1.8 Scope of the study The study deals with assessing the challenges of water supply and sanitation facilities in Huruma Estate of Nairobi County. The study focused on the community within Ngei I and II, Kasonova, Kibichoi, Kitasuru, Madoya, Huruma B and Huruma Flats villages. It was also be concerned with the institutions involved in management of water and sanitation within Huruma. Among the areas studied include:  Water and sanitation services within the area.  Uncontrolled residential developments in the area.  Strategies and suggestions for improvement.  Map of the area

1.9 Operational Definitions My study was guided by the following operational terms.

 Sanitation is the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal. It means the prevention of human contact with wastes, for hygienic purposes. It focuses on management of waste produced by human activities.  Infrastructure is the basic physical systems of a place and includes transportation, communication, sewage, water and electric systems.  Residential development is a classification of housing where multiple separate housing units for residential inhabitants are contained within one building or several buildings within one complex.  Water Scarcity is a relative concept which can be defined as imbalances between availability and demand of water in a particular area.  Water tariff refers to a price assigned to water supplied by a public utility through a piped network to its customers.  Water supply refers to the water available to a community or a region.

 Water stress refers to disequilibrium which results when the demand for water exceeds the available amount during a certain period or when poor quality restricts its use.  Demographic pressure refers to the impact felt on the available resources for instance water or sanitation facilities as a result of uncontrolled population increase which outweighs the areas carrying capacity.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION A major recent United Nations report on the state of water and sanitation in the world's cities found that water distribution systems in many cities in the developing world are inadequate, typically serving the city's upper- and middle-class neighborhoods but not rapidly expanding settlements on the urban fringe (UN-HABITAT, 2010). The large projected increases in the numbers of urban residents in the developing world over the next 20–30 years implies that municipal authorities responsible for these sectors face very serious challenges in the years ahead. Improving public sanitation is another major urban environmental challenge that needs to be immediately addressed in virtually all cities in the developing world. Using these criteria, UN-HABITAT's new report Water and Sanitation in the World's Cities, estimates that in Africa as many as 150 million urban residents representing up to 50% of the urban population do not have adequate water supplies, while 180 million, or roughly 60% of people in urban areas lack adequate sanitation. Facing present growth of urban population, it is increasingly difficult to find and utilize new sources of water necessary to satisfy growing water demand. For the poor, the residents of peri-urban and squatter areas, an ultimate poverty, the poverty of lacking clean water, is a result. To remove this kind of poverty should be a first priority target for all people and, especially, for people dealing with water and sanitation management in urban areas.(Niemczynowicz, 1999) According to Cohen, 2006 over the last 20 years, many urban areas have experienced dramatic growth, as a result of rapid population growth and as the world's economy have been transformed by a combination of rapid technological and political change. Around 3 billion people-virtually half of the world's total population-now live in urban settlements. And while cities command an increasingly dominant role in the global economy as centers of both production and consumption, rapid urban growth throughout the developing world is seriously outstripping the capacity of most cities to provide adequate services for their citizens. Over the next 30 years, virtually all of the world's population growth is expected to be concentrated in urban areas in the developing world. The

7 challenges of achieving sustainable urban development will be particularly formidable in Africa. Gleick, 1998 says that more than a billion people in the developing world lack safe drinking water- an amenity those in the developed world take for granted. Nearly three billion people live without access to adequate sanitation systems necessary for reducing exposure to water-related diseases. The failure of the international aid community, nations and local organizations to satisfy these basic human needs has led to substantial, unnecessary and preventable human suffering.

2.1.1 Access to sanitation Only 27% of the urban populations and 32% of the rural population in Kenya had access to private and improved sanitation. In the urban setting 51% of the populations shared pit latrines. In the rural setting open defecation was still practiced by 18% of the population. Only 50% of the Kenyan population within the services areas of 55 (WSPs) had access to improved sanitation facilities. Only 23% of the residents of Nairobi city had access proper sanitation facilities (African Ministers' Council on Water, 2010)

JICA in 1998 estimated total City waste generation at 1530tons a day of which 82.8% from the households. This represents 1267 tons per day generated from domestic and residential set ups. This translated to 0.59 kg of waste generated by every individual at average in the city. The slum areas being the most congested and densely populated produced more waste than any other residential setting in the city. From the UNEP/NEMA’s 2011, the residential waste generation per capita in the city had increased from the previous 0.59kg to 0.61 kg.

The current population of Nairobi is estimated to be 3.265 million persons thus and the current waste generation rate is 3121 tons per day in which domestic refuse constitute 68%. This represents a 30% increase from the estimates of 2400 tons/day in 2004.This increase in the quantity of waste is attributed to the increase in the number of persons in the city. There is thus need for adequate measures to ensure proper treatment and management of the waste generated.

2.2 Institutional frameworks and role of stakeholders in water and sanitation sector The waters sector has several institutions charged with the responsibility of ensuring adequate water and sanitation services to the entire citizens of the country. These mainly came after the enactment of the Water Act, 2002 which looked forward to;

 The separation of the management of the water resources from the provision of the water services.  The separation of policy formulation on water issues from the day to day administration and regulation.  Decentralization of the functions in the water and sanitation sector to the lower level state organs.  The involvement of non-governmental entities in the management of water resources.  The involvement of the non-governmental entities in the provision of water services.

2.2.1 Role of the government The government has put down many measures and various institutions in the past decade to ensure that the community members and the entire citizen fraternity receive adequate water and sanitation supply in the country. There was the establishment of the Water Sector Reform Secretariat (WSRS) whose responsibility was to cover the transitional gap during the period which the water reforms institutions were being established. Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF) was established in 2004, to provide financial assistance towards capital investment costs in areas lacking adequate facilities which are often inhabited by the poor. The transfer of the central government staff and the assets were realized through the development of the transfer plan of 2005 in which the services were delegated to the (WSBs) and the (WSPs).

The draft National Water Services Strategy (NWSS) for the period 2007/2015 was formulated in June 2007. This paper’s main objective was to realize the goal of the MDG declaration and the goal in the Kenya’s economic blue print Vision 2030 concerning access to safe and affordable water and basic sanitation to the citizens of the country. NWSS defines access safe water and basic sanitation facilities as both a human right and

9 economic good. The strategy is also aimed at cost recovery by the WSPs to ensure sustainable water and sanitation for the entire populations especially the residents of the poor areas (MoWI, 2007).

The MoWI is the key institution charged with overseeing the water services sector in the country. The ministry has five departments which include Administration and Support Services; Water Services; Water Resources Management; Irrigation, Drainage and Water Storage; Land Reclamation.

The MoWI is responsible for formulation of policies and strategies for water and sewerage services; co-ordination and monitoring of other water institutions in the country and overall investment, planning and resources mobilization in the water and sanitation services sector.

The MPHS is charged with the responsibility of development of sanitation polices in the country and to work in harmony with the MoWI. The ministry as so far developed the Water Supply and Sanitation Concept which as clearly defined the sanitation targets for the entire country and the timelines for their achievements.

Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB) was established in 2003 to license and supervise WSBs; approve or disapprove the SPAs; develop and negotiate tariff guidelines; set standards and develop guidelines for service provision; and publish results for sector monitoring of the situation in the water and sanitation services provision.

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) which came into existence in 2002 after the enactment of the Environmental Management and Co-ordination Act of 1999 (EMCA, 1999) is charged with the responsibility of promoting integration of environmental considerations into government policies, plans, programmes and projects. In the water services sector NEMA is responsible for the development of water quality regulations to ensure that the water reaching the consumers are of high quality.

The WSBs in each of the eight regions are responsible for the water services provision in the regions of the jurisdiction. The boards are responsible for the development and rehabilitation of water and sewerage facilities for investment planning and

10 implementation. The Nairobi County is served by the Athi Water Services Board (AWSB).

The WSBs have delegated their duties of provision of the water services to the Water Services Providers (WSPs). The services are delegated and provide through the Services Provision Agreements (SPAs) singed between the WSBs and the WSPs. This is aimed at ensuring high standards of services and good quality water reaching the consumers as established by WASREB.

There are four types of SPAs:

 Category I for medium to large WSPs operative in urban areas - WSPs in this category are limited liability companies owned by one or more local authorities. They provide both water and sewerage services  Category II for community projects in rural areas - these are community water supplies which are managed by WSPs registered as Water User Associations (WUAs) by the Registrar of Societies. In May 2008 there were 58 SPAs of this kind.  Category III for private sector providers.  Category IV for bulk water supply - this is the responsibility of the National Water and Sewerage Company (MoWI & WSRAWSR, 2008)

2.2.2 Community roles Apart from the above mentioned categories, there are the established informal Small Service Providers (SSPs) which are responsible for the provision of the water services to the rural settlements and the poor urban settings. These usually provide their services through the use of tankers and jerry cans and are usually run by self-help groups, women groups who provide water services to the local level community set ups. It is important to note that there are proposals to formalize water and sanitation services provision in the poor urban and rural areas.

These proposals include the Community Project Cycle which makes funds available for local communities that are willing to comply with minimum service standards and the Urban Poor Concept which has been implemented in some of the poor urban settings

11 under which several water kiosks have been developed to meet sustainability standards (MoWI, 2009).

2.2.3 Role of the NGOS and civil organizations The civil society has been active in Kenya for last decades mainly through the struggle for various human rights and freedoms. However in the water sector the participation of the various civil rights organizations, community based organizations and non- governmental organizations as well as individual activist in the water and sanitation sector has been limited. In 2007, an umbrella organization of the water services provision in the civil organization, Kenya Water and Sanitation Civil Society Network (KEWASNET), was formed. The main objective of this network was to ensure adequate service delivery in the water sector especially for the poor residents and ensure proper policy implementation in the water services reforms. The network campaigns for the protection of water services provision infrastructure from vandalisms and continuously appeal to the members of the community to be responsible in the use and consumption of the water and sanitation services available. (KEWASNET, 2012).

2.3 Causes of inadequate water supply and sanitation

2.3.1 Uncompetitive water and sanitation tariffs The cost of exploiting a water resource depends on whether current extraction rates are sustainable. Water usage is said to be sustainable if the net usage of water now, and in the future will be less than the inflow (Noll,et al.,2000).Tariffs should be based on the full price of water, which includes source development, purchase of raw water, treatment, and distribution costs(McIntosh,2003).

In Kenya, urban water tariffs are high by regional a standard that is $0.46 per m3 as reportedby the water services regulatory board (WASREB) in 2007 (WASREB, 2009). According to a survey done by Athi water services board for Nairobi, it is expected that increase in population would translate into increased number of households requiring individual connections for increased water supply coverage thus a huge investment would be vital to facilitate the implementation of the water connections scheme.(AWSB,2011)

The movement of people in the urban centres have strained the available public utilities and to the worst extent overwhelmed the ability of the responsible institutions to provide such services. In this case most of the responsibilities of the government have been taken up by private institutions usually with little or no supervision by the government. In such circumstances the quality of services has gone down and the commercialization of the public utilities have made them inaccessible for use by the poor citizens (World Bank, 2002).

2.3.2 Demographic pressures on water and sanitation management The Kenyan population currently stands at approximately forty million peoples as per the results of the 2009 population census. The global water supply benchmark is 1000 cubic meters per annum while the Kenya situation currently stands at six hundred and eighty five cubic meters per annum. This is a situation that the Water Resources Management Authority (WRMA) has warned is alarming and serious measures need to be put in place to ensure that the country does not grow ―thirsty‖ beyond remedy. The areas hard hit by the acute water shortage are the urban slums. This is contrary to the fact that urban population constitutes more than sixty per cent of the urban population in most urban centre in the country. With these kinds of population the respective government institutions are unable to offer their services to these areas. The rate of urbanisation has been highest in the developing world and Kenya is no exception. In the last decade of the twentieth century the urbanisation growth rate stood at 3.5% in Africa. This is mainly attributed to the high rate of rural urban migration in these developing nations (UN- Habitat, 2003).

With the rapid urbanization and skyrocketing rates of population growth, the developing world continues to bear the burden of inadequate water and sanitation from its population. Rapid urbanization is quickly leading to the development of more informal settlement in the major towns of the developing countries.

2.3.3 Inadequate investments and infrastructures The level of urbanization in Kenya stood at 33.4% in the year 2000 and projections showed that it will hit 50.8% by the year 2020. The annual growth rate is at 3.76%, (UN- Habitat, 2003). The Kenyan urban centres continue to receive high number of immigrants

13 with little or no investment in the housing sector. This has led to the continuous growth in the number of the informal settlements. This coupled with the high foreign debts and the world’s economic recession development programmes have been crippled in many ways thus the poor settlements in the urban centres continue to languish in poverty.

2.3.4 Depletion of natural water resources for urban supply Urbanization goes hand in hand with an increase in population density, which means that more people have to rely on existing water sources. New sources are also difficult to find, and/or expensive in exploitation (Bart et al, .2009).Many cities have come to the limits of water availability from natural sources. This has been discussed by Fang et al. (2007) through the Concept of Water Resources Constraint Forces (WRCF). Boreholes and wells are also very important in supplementing available water for consumption. Unfortunately, they are endangered by increasingly being depleted and not renewed .This is particularly rampart in urban areas, where due to presence of roads and buildings; infiltration capacity of the soil is hampered to a minimum which further decreases the capacity for ground water renewal (Bart et al, .2009) endangering existence of wells and boreholes.

2.4 Effects of inadequate water and sanitation supply

2.4.1 Health impacts of inadequate water and sanitation Traditionally, improvements in water supply and sanitation have been promoted as essential public health measures to improve the population’s health status. If universal piped and regulated water supplies were to be achieved, about 7.6 billion episodes of diarrhoea could be prevented annually, a 70% reduction.In a population-based case- control study in the metropolitan areas of Porto Alegre and Pelotas in southern Brazil children dying in infancy from diarrhoea were compared to neighborhood controls in terms of several social and environmental variables. Factors found to be significantly associated with an increased risk of death from diarrhoea included the non-availability of piped water, the absence of a flush toilet, residence in a poorly built house and household overcrowding. When adjustment was made for confounding variables and the mutual confounding effect of the environmental variables on each other, the only association that remained statistically significant was that with the availability of piped water. Compared to those with water piped to their house, those without easy access to piped water were

14 found to be 4.8 times more likely to suffer infant death from diarrhoea (95% confidence interval 1.7 to 13.8) and those with water piped to their plot but not to their house had a 1.5 times greater (Victoria et al., 1988).

2.4.2 Socio-economic effects of inadequate water and sanitation At the macro-economic level, lack of clean water and sanitation has a direct impact on labour productivity. In 1991, when Peru suffered a cholera epidemic, apart from the thousands of deaths, it was estimated that the Peru GDP lost about $232 million in just one year. If the international community hopes to meet the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 7, which includes the target of halving the number of people without access to clean water and adequate sanitation by 2015, then the world is going to have to confront the problems of the urban poor. (WHO, 2012) In the poor setting, the time of the day spent on the search has significantly increased in the past decade. This coupled with the socio-cultural practiced has transferred the burden of fetching water to the poor women and the girls in the poor settings. In 2007, it was estimated that women and girls fetched water 4-6 times a day in most Kenyan cities. This translated to 112 minutes which the poor households’ settings spent in search of water per day. This usually increased to 200 minutes during the times of scarcity. 2006 (WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) 2010).

2.5 Theoretical Framework According to the theory of planning and building cities, urban planning is governed by social structure, level of development of productive forces, science and culture, natural and climatic conditions, and a country’s national characteristics. This theory has been developed by planners based on Theoretical schools of urban planning, such as de- urbanism (related to the late 19th-century concept of the garden city) and urbanism (the designs of Le Cor-busier, the leader of the school in the 19th century). Urban planning encompasses a complex network of socioeconomic, civil engineering, architectural and decorative, water and sanitation problems. The general rule for pre-socialist urban planning involved to some degree the influence of private ownership of real estate and land. The inequality of property distribution was reflected in the methods of planning and

construction and in the organization of public services of urban territory. Ruling-class districts, created on the basis of the best contemporary urban planning achievements were drastically different from the overcrowded working-class areas, which lacked essential public amenities such as water and sanitation. There are presently two social orders in the world—socialism and capitalism—which determine two ways of developing urban planning. Under capitalism the interests of landowners, industrialists, and financiers usually lead to the haphazard construction of population centers that contradict the goals of urban planning. Under socialism the state planning of the national economy creates all the conditions needed for the systematic, scientifically based development of the kinds of cities most suitable for the work, daily life, and relaxation of the entire population.

The theory and practice of urban planning accomplishes two tasks: the reconstruction and development of old cities and the construction of new cities. It proposes zoning of urban territory to be carried out in order to create the most beneficial living conditions for the population and to facilitate the functioning of the city as a whole. Urban planning decisions should be made with due regard for the development of industrial, residential, and recreation areas and for satisfying the requirements of sanitary engineering (for example, in water and air purity, insolation, and soundproofing). These proposals can be applied to as well solve the challenges of water supply and sanitation in Huruma estate.

Ruling –class districts Proper urban planning- Existing Social orders in Huruma Estate; zoning and reconstruction in Huruma estate; Controlled residential of infrastructure systems in Huruma estate Socialism (national developments and economy planning uncontrolled state) and Capitalism residential (interests of developments (lack Adequate landowners and adequate water supply provision of financiers) and sanitation) amenities-water supply and sanitation in Huruma estate

Figure 2.1: Theoretical model representing the theory of planning and building cities

(Source: Author, 2014)

2.5.1 Application of the theoretical Model The theoretical model (above) shows how the challenges of water supply and sanitation will be tackled basing on the theory of planning and building cities. There exist ruling class districts in Huruma estate where there are controlled residential developments adequately supplied with water and sanitation along Huruma flats. However in the other areas there exist uncontrolled residential developments that lack adequate water supply and sanitation. This inequality calls the need for proper urban planning and reconstruction of infrastructure systems to ensure this challenge is addressed. The two social orders of socialism and capitalism exist in Huruma and will determine the development of urban planning. There are private landowners and service providers whose interests in the maintenance and rehabilitation of water supply and sanitation network will be considered. This will reduce conflicts in implementing the goals of urban planning. The government and relevant authorities will provide the state planning of the national economy to provide all the conditions needed for the systematic, scientifically based development of the kinds of urban estates most suitable for the work, daily life, and relaxation of the entire population which includes adequate provision of water and sanitation in Huruma estate through urban planning.

2.6 Conceptual Framework Water supply and sanitation challenges can be viewed in terms of policy relevant questions for instance; how much resources are available and who needs it? Who gets how much? At what cost? (IDRC, 2002).In connection to this more pressing questions need to be addressed: who decides? By what procedures? What features of governance will most likely produce management decisions that are fair, equitable and environmentally sustainable? The aim of my this conceptual model is to address issues of environmental degradation as result of water and sanitation access challenges, discrimination of some areas in provision of water and sanitation services, high and uncompetitive water and sanitation tariffs, demographic pressure on water and sanitation management, infrastructure deterioration among others. This informs the conceptual model below.

Basic Access challenges Equitable Interventions Result characteristics access of water and dimension sanitation services No physical - Uncontrolled residential Geographical Employ qualified access (no water affected by environmental disparities water and and sanitation degradation or scarcity, sanitation available, water have no physical access or professionals

sources polluted, have access of lower quality no facilities) than other areas Adjust water and Low quality of -Mechanical incompetence sanitation tariffs physical services -Demographic pressure on water and sanitation Upgrade of (water management infrastructure contamination, -Dilapidated water discontinuous infrastructure Community participation in service) key water and Good quality of -Physical services are not Access by sanitation physical services adapted to the physical vulnerable or decision making

needs of certain groups marginalized Equitable (people with disabilities, groups Allocation policy schoolchildren, poor people) to be adhered to

-The water and sanitation Affordability Proper bill represents too large a by users monitoring and share of disposable income maintenance of for some households water and sanitation

infrastructure sanitation and supply water adequate and equitable Improved, Figure 2.2: Conceptual model showing improved, adequate and equitable water and sanitation

(Source: Author, 2014)

CHAPTER THREE: AREA OF STUDY

3.1 PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION

3.1.1 Location and Size Huruma Estate is a residential estate located in the northeast of Nairobi, the capital of Kenya along Juja Road. It borders Kariobangi and Dandora to the East, Moi Air Base to the south, Mathare to the North and Eastleigh to the West. It is centred at 1015’23‖S and 36052’20‖E of Starehe District in Nairobi County. Huruma estate consists of eight villages: Ngei I and II, Kasonova, Kibichoi, Kitasuru, Madoya, Huruma B and Huruma Flats, all built on land belonging to the Nairobi City County. The settlements have been in existence for as long as 28 years. The settlements occupy a total land area of 4.117 hectares. Due to its location it forms a link between people accessing the busy Eastleigh estates and Gikomba market. This has attracted more population in the area thus straining most of the available public utilities including water and sanitation.

Figure 3.1: Map of Huruma Estate and neighboring Estates 3.1.2 Topography and Drainage (Source: Google map, 2012)

The area is characterized by relatively smooth terrain slowing northwards. This can be attributed to the directions of the flows of both Nairobi River and River Mathare. The area has an elevation of around 1683 metres above sea level. This terrain affects the flow of storm water in the area resulting to lots of standing water which has a direct negative impact on sanitation.

3.1.3 Geology The area is mainly covered with clay soils. The areas around the river banks are generally good for agriculture but due to pollution of water in the river, very little cultivation is being carried out near the river banks. Clay soils are associated with poor drainage as they have high water retention capacity. This affects sanitation of the area.

3.1.4 Climate The climatic conditions of the area correspond to the climatic conditions of Nairobi’s Eastland areas. The climate of the area can be characterized as tropical climate. Climate and temperatures within the study area are influenced by altitude. Rainfall is bimodal with long rains occurring from March to June and short rains from October to December. The mean annual rainfall averages between 600mm to 1100 mm per annum and falls in two maxims, that is, short rains from October to December and long rains from March to May. Mean annual relative humidity values range from 65% at lower elevations to 80% or more above 2500m. Humidity is greatest at dawn and lowest in early afternoon when the temperature reaches the diurnal maximum. Throughout the area the daily temperature varies little with season and the diurnal variation is greater than the seasonal variation. This rainfall cannot be highly relied for the provision of adequate water supply in the area of study.

3.1.5 Vegetation The area is barely covered with vegetation as most of the area is built up with structures. The vegetation available is generally the river bank vegetation covered mainly with couch grass and other hydrophilic plants. This has largely influenced the hydrology cycle as most of the area is built thus most of the water is lost through surface run-off. This partially contributes to water shortages in the area in the long run. In addition, the air is not fully aerated since the area lacks adequate carbon sinks.

3.2 SOCIO ECONOMIC DESCRIPTION

3.2.1 Population Size and Structure Huruma is a high density area mostly settled by people who are in the medium to low income bracket. The area is mainly characterized by residential apartment developments. Statistics from 2009 population census show that the area has a population of 48,287 people. The population estimate show that the percentage of female in the area is 57% compared to the male 43%. This is high population as compared to the area thus straining the ability of service providers to fully satisfy the demand.

3.2.2 Huruma Area Profile

3.2.2.1 Administration Profile Huruma lies in Starehe District, Mathare Division and Huruma Location in Nairobi County. Huruma location consists of two sub-locations namely Huruma and Kiamaiko. Huruma sub-location is the study areas and is further subdivided into eight villages which include: Ngei I and II, Kasonova, Kibichoi, Kitasuru, Madoya, Huruma B and Huruma Flats. With the high number of villages in an urban set up, this indicates the area holds a large population which increases demand for water and sanitation facilities.

3.2.2.2 Transport and Communication There is a lot of infrastructure in this area. The houses in this area are built mainly from building stones. The population in this area is mainly tenants who pay rent. There are limited sewer systems and piped water systems. Road network is present within the area. It is served by Juja Road from the CBD to the famous Juja Rd-Outering Road Roundabout. The area can also be accessed through Thika Superhighway to the Kenya School of Monetary Studies junction through Mathare North. There is inadequate street lighting and some areas are served with flood lights to improve on the security. Due to the area’s proximity to the CBD, it has attracted many urban residents thus overstretching the available water and sanitation facilities.

3.2.2.3 Energy supply There is metred electricity supply in the area which is mainly used for lighting, cooking and electronic and electrical usage. Charcoal, gas and paraffin are the main source of energy for domestic use in the area. Lack of well supplied energy system has resulted to most of the multi storied apartments lacking piped water as pressure required to pump water is inadequate.

3.2.2.4 Educational Facilities There are many educational facilities in the area. The primary schools in the area include Bishop Kitonga Academy, Ndururuno Primary School among others. The area is dominated by private schools although there are a few public schools. Secondary schools in the area include PAG, MCO Joy, and Mercy Care among others.

Plate 3.1:Educational institution in Huruma(Source :Field Survey, 2014)

These educational facilities open avenues for the sensitization of the community through early trainings and awareness of the importance of water conservation and use sustainable waste management mechanism.

3.2.2.5 Health Facilities There are operational private and public health facilities in the area. The leading facilities in the health sector include Huruma Health Centre, Max Medical Centre among others.

The diseases mostly reported in the area are HIV/AIDS, respiratory diseases, malaria, diarrhoea, cholera and typhoid. Suggestions are that the respiratory disorders may arise from the Dandora dumpsite. Water supply and sanitation inadequacies are attributed to most of the hygiene-related diseases.

1.3 Resource Potential

3.3.1 Land There is still a potential in the land use practices in the area. If proper zoning regulations are applied, the unplanned residential buildings can be well managed to allow for proper utilization of the available land.

3.3.2 Water Huruma mainly gets its water from Nairobi City Water and Sewerage Company. The main water sources are Sasumua and Ndakaini Dams. However, there are numerous water kiosks and private water vendors dominating in the area to supplement the council water. There is poor reticulation network and in some places, the water is not metred. In addition, wells and rainwater harvesting as well as Nairobi and Mathare Rivers are other sources of water. It is worth noting that the ability of the two rivers to fully purify themselves has been overwhelmed by the excess release of waste into the rivers. However, the rivers provide a potential for remedy of water inadequacies in the area. If a cleanup mechanism is carried out and proper measures are put in place to curb release of waste into the rivers, the rivers can prove vital in the provision of adequate water to the local populace.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction This chapter describes the methodology that was used to assess the challenges facing water supply and sanitation in Huruma Estate. It describes the study design, the study sample, and the tools and procedures that were used. It explains how data was collected and analyzed; the validity and reliability of the research instruments and the ethical considerations.

4.2 Research design This research is a descriptive survey aimed at assessing the challenges of water supply and sanitation of the residents of Huruma estate in Nairobi County and provides mitigation measures to the challenges. To achieve the objectives of this study, both quantitative and qualitative data was collected. The quantitative data was necessary to help quantify the number of respondents who provided a particular response in relation to the objectives. They were also used to obtain information such as the perceptions of the community in relation to the challenges and management of water and sanitation. Qualitative data also encompassed the observations made with regard to the quality of the water and sanitation.

4.3 Nature and Sources of Data

4.3.1 Nature of Data With a view of achieving the objectives of this study, data from primary and secondary sources were used. The primary data consisted of opinions of local residents of Huruma area, those of opinion leaders and women. Such data was retrieved from interviews with the individuals and the administration of questionnaires. Major issues discussed included accessibility, reliability, quality and quantity and sustainability of the water and sanitation services in Huruma Estate.

Other sources of primary data included too the opinions of the various institutions’ heads, individuals, youth groups and women groups involved in water and sanitation services

24 provision in the area. Their suggestions on how the sector can be improved were quite valuable.

Secondary data used in the study area included published and unpublished information on water and sanitation services in the various institutions in the water and sanitation sectors. It is from secondary data that background of the study was developed and the areas that needed improvement identified.

4.3.2 Sources of Data

4.3.2.1 Primary Data This entailed all the firsthand information gathered from the field through the administration of the questionnaires, focus group discussions, interview schedules, checklist and photography made during the study. Such information was collected from opinion leaders, youth and women groups, NGOs and CBOs, government institutions and private stakeholders in the water and sanitation services in the area.

Data gathered from residents included socio-demographic data, frequency of water availability in their respective areas of residence and household’s water consumption patterns which was crucial for the study. In the institutional interview, the main data that was sought for was in line possible liaison opportunities between NCWSC and the residents of Huruma in dealing with the challenge of inadequate water supply and sanitation.

The checklist was mainly used in recording various water sources used in the area. This helped in giving informed recommendations after data analysis.

4.3.2.2 Secondary Data The data was obtained from both local and international documented sources on water and sanitation management. These sources included reports, journals, books, internet source and district development plans in the country. Such information was obtained from government agencies such as Kenyatta University postmodern library and internet sources. Some preliminary data in line with the research objectives was acquired and documented in the literature review. It provides general information on general causes of

25 inadequate water and sanitation on global, continental and national scale and how it has affected the livelihoods of its residents. References at the tail end of this report display the variety of secondary sources used.

4.4 Sampling and Design Procedure There are various sampling techniques that were embraced which included:

4.4.1 Simple Random Sampling This technique was used in households which each member of the population had an equal chance of being selected as a subject. The entire process of sampling was done with each subject selected independently of the other members of the population. In this case, the study samples in the residential households were selected in this manner. This translated into minimum bias and prejudice when identifying households experiencing inadequate water and sanitation supply.

4.4.2 Snowball sampling This technique was used in institutions such as NCWSC since it provided the avenue to access an otherwise highly sensitive or difficult research study population. It employed the presumed social networks that exist between members of the target population to build a sample. This sampling technique was applied in the institutional interviews with NCWSC whose sample size was quite progressive.

4.5 Data Collection Methods The following are some of the data collection methods that were employed during the study:

4.5.1 Questionnaires (Appendix 2) Questionnaires were administered to the area residents who were selected randomly. The designs of the questions were such that they met the objectives of the study.

4.5.2 Photographs (Table of plates) The data captured included water redistribution networks and water service vendors at work depicting inadequate water hence thriving commercialized water schemes. Illegal

26 dumping sites are also shown depicting poor waste management. Photographic evidence was crucial for purposes of enhancing analysis in the subsequent chapters.

4.5.3 Focus group Discussion (Appendix 3) Focus group discussions were conducted at one of the Umande Bio Centres in Kasonovo with the help of the community members. The quorum composed of 3 caretakers, 2 landlords, 2 water vendors, 2 officials of Umande Trust and 2 residents. The members discussed various avenues of community participation in the role of provision of water and sanitation facilities in Huruma and projects that they were willing to initiate in collaboration with other stakeholders.

4.5.4 Interviews (Appendix 1) Personal interviews were conducted with NCWSC’s employees in order to get information on the challenges facing their daily operation and management of the water and sewerage distribution network in Huruma Estate. The main emphasis was finding out the sanitation services and water ratio and to confirm whether it is consistent all year round. I also sought to explore if liaison opportunities with the residents is an acceptable option to help alleviate inadequate water supply and sanitation in the area.

4.5.5 Checklist (Appendix 4) This instrumenthelped in recording firsthand information about the available water sources. This was ofuse especially in discussing water facilities and services, cumulative household characteristics of the residents thus a comprehensive analysis of the water and sanitation situation in Huruma.

4.6 Sample Size and Selection Procedure The sample population comprised of residents of Huruma Estate. The sample size of 65 households was picked randomly. The sample size was selected due to the strict security protocol which discourages apartment surveys and the limited budget which could only suffice a small sample size. Simple random sampling was used to select zones taking into consideration the housing patterns. The random administering of questionnaires commenced at Redeemed Gospel Church, Huruma Corner, Jonsaga and Huruma Flats and spiraled outwards towards Mathare North. Snowball sampling method was used

27 during institutional interviews, due to lots of referrals of the various professionals of NCWSC involved in the chain of command responded to the interview.

4.7 Constraints to Data Collection

4.7.1 Financial Constraints Production of the preliminary research concept paper to the final research report consumed a lot of monetary resources. Acquisitions of equipment for hire such as camera for taking photographs and print expenses on research instruments such as questionnaires and interview schedules was also high. This eventually dictated a smaller sample size that was within the budgetary allocation. The study was limited in that it relied on sampling techniques to get data and hence may not be inclusive of the whole population.

4.7.2 Strict Regulations and insecurity concerns Despite having a research authorization letter from the university and the area chief, it was difficult to access some apartments during the survey since caretakers were reluctant citing security reasons.It was difficult to access some parts of Kibichoi along Mathare River due to presence of street families that posed security concerns. This to some extent limited data collection exercise.

CHAPTER FIVE: DATA ANALYSI AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the analysis of data collected from a research conducted in Huruma Estate. The main purpose of the study was to assess the challenges of water supply and sanitation in uncontrolled residential developments of Huruma Estate. Further the study is aimed at: determining the causes of water supply and sanitation problems, establish the impacts of inadequate sanitation facilities and water in Huruma Estate, identify roles of stakeholders and avenues of community participation in promoting adequate water supply and sanitation. Lastly the study recommends mitigation measures in dealing with inadequate water supply and sanitation in Huruma estate. A total of 65 questionnaires were conducted in various homesteads chosen randomly using roads as transects. The researcher used Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Microsoft excel in analyzing data.

5.1 Causes of water supply and sanitation problems. There are various factors found to result to inadequate water supply and sanitation in Huruma Estate. This area has unique characteristics mainly due to its proximity and access to the Nairobi CBD and this makes it more vulnerable to various provisions of services challenges. Discussed below are factors which were found out to be the most common causes in Huruma estate.

5.1.1 Rapid increase in population Huruma covers an area of 4.117 hectares and currently has a population of 48,287 people. During the study 55% of the respondents attributed the challenge of water supply and sanitation the rapid population increase. According to NCWSC, initially water and sanitation systems had been designed to cater for a population of approximately 18,000 people. In the year 2002 the Council expanded its water piping system to cater for the growing population but this was not adequate to fully satisfy the residents. With no proper regulations to control the developments of residential apartments, this has led to more people moving into the area as there are available houses for them. This has further aggravated the water supply and sanitation problems as the high-rise buildings lack these basic amenities.

Plate5.1: Example of highrise buildings some still under construction

(Source :Field Survey, 2014)

The study also shows that most of 60% of the residents are aged between 28-37 years. This is greatly attributed to the large working class newlyweds who mostly are in the middle and low income brackets. This prompts them to look for affordable housing which is available in the study area increasing the population.

DISTRIBUTION OF AGES

3% 5% 12% 18-27 28-37 11% 38-47 48-57 9% 57-67 60% 67 and above

Figure 5.1: Age distribution in the area

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

5.1.2 Increased infrastructural developments The study area is basically covered by infrastructure ranging from residential buildings to road network. Most of the feeder roads are tarmacked and this increases water surface runoff thus affecting the hydrological cycle of the area. This has increased the unreliability of groundwater as an alternative source of water in this area due to heavy investments on infrastructure.

Sources of Water 40

25 piped water

Respondents 20 borehole water

of water vendors 15 roof catchments

Number 10

0 Water sources

Figure 5.2: Various sources of water in Huruma Estate

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

20% of the respondents attributed inadequate water supply to the ever increasing residential buildings coming which use massive water thus interfering with the supply meant for residents. NCWSC pointed out that there is always a challenge of supplying water to high-rise buildings in the area since there lacks adequate pressure needed to pump water. During construction of some the buildings, there is a lot of frequent bursting of water pipes resulting to disruption of water supply.

The study shows that the construction of residential buildings along most of the pavements has affected the ability of the NCWSC to collect waste generated due to poor

31 access roads and points. The sanitation level in the Huruma estate is really wanting. There are no set areas for collecting and managing the solid waste. The waste is carelessly thrown by the way sides. However in some places the waste is usually collected by youth groups which charge every household Kshs. 100 each per household.

Plate 5.2:An example of poor access pavements and roads

(Source: Field survey, 2014)

5.1.3 Low levels of income visa vies Uncompetitive charges As shown in Figure below, the people of Huruma Estate with salaries less than 2000 about 2% and hence find it difficult to buy water from water vendors who sell it at 10 shillings per a 20 litre jerican.23% of the respondents earn salaries at the range of 2,001- 6,000 which is almost equal to those with salaries ranging 6,001-10,000 which is 31%.Those that earn 10,001-15,000 constituted 38% of the respondents while only 6% earn more than 15,000. Most of the residents of Huruma Estate earn between 2,000- 15,000 shillings. This can be the reason for the low level of water and sanitation services in the area. A largepopulation in the area is preoccupied by the needs to satisfy basic human needs of food and shelter hence there is little investment in the waste management and water services. House rent ranges from 3,000-8,000 in most of the villages and in relation to the salaries distribution, most residents lack adequate funds to meet all their needs including water and sanitation. From the study it was found that there are youth

32 groups who charge 100 shillings for waste collection per household monthly. Water bills are included in the rents and hence residents feel they are overexploited by the landlords.

Monthly Salary Distribution 30

20 <2,000 2,001-6,000 15 6,001-10,000 10 10,001-15,000

NumberofRespondents >15,000 5

0 Monthly Salary

Figure5.3: Monthly salary distribution in Huruma Estate

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

5.1.4 Depleted water towers and inadequate dumping sites From the study, the respondents attribute cases of inadequate sanitation services to the already full to capacity Dandora dumping site. They are aware that the Council neglects collection of waste in the area since it lacks adequate sites to dump it.

15% of the respondents attributed inadequate water to depleted water towers. Mathare River traversing through the area is highly polluted resulting to the council out sourcing water from other areas such as Ndakaini and Sasamua dams. Major water catchment areas such as Aberdare forest of these dams have experienced immense illegal cutting of trees depleting these water towers. This has resulted to low water levels in these dams and hence the council at times uses water rationing affecting residents of Huruma.

Plate 5.3:A section of Mathare River and Dandora Dumping site

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

Causes of Inadequate Water Supply

10% 15% Inadequate dumping sites and depleted water towers Infrasructural Developments

20% Rapid Population Growth

Low levels of Income visa vies 55% Uncompetitive Charges

Figure 5.4: Causes of Inadequate Water Supply and Sanitation in Huruma Estate

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

5.2 Impacts of inadequate sanitation facilities and water in Huruma Estate. Water and sanitation services are basic needs for sustainable livelihoods of people. Inadequate sanitation facilities and water in Huruma Estate has affected residents in many different ways as discussed below.

5.2.1 Overexploitation by private service providers From the study, all the respondents sampled out said they often result to buying water from private water vendors available in the area of study. Youth groups who collect domestic wastes from the households, charge 100 shillings per month and as compared to the salary distribution, most residents fell that they are exploited. Moreover most of these youth groups end up dumping the collected waste at the banks of River Mathare or along the busy Juja road as found out during the study. Water is sold at 10 shillings at the points of bio centres and other private boreholes. However these selling points are not near the places of residence and hence some middlemen take advantage of this and do door to door delivery services ending up selling water at 30 shillings per 20 litre jerican.35% the respondents have fallen victim of this overexploitation. NCWSC recommends that the price of a 20 litre container should be Kshs5; this means that residents of Huruma are overexploited six times more.

Plate 5.4:Middlemen water vendors in Huruma Estate

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

5.2.2 Prevalence of disease outbreaks The drainage system in Huruma is evidently not taken care of. The way sides are also an avenue for the waste water to flow away from the source as evident in the plate below.

Plate5.5:Waste water flow in Huruma

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

In the study area, 39% of the respondents said that waterborne diseases were on the rise as a result of water and sanitation deficits. The most common diseases cited out included diarrhoea, cholera, malaria and typhoid especially among children. Some people admitted having also contracted some skin diseases as a result of using contaminated water from Mathare River for washing clothes. This problem is further aggravated by some unscrupulous water vendors who get their water from bursting pipes along sewer lines and sell it to the residents. This has greatly increased the residents’ vulnerability to waterborne diseases. Waste that have been haphazardly thrown everywhere in the area forms good breeding grounds for mosquitoes thus increasing malaria prevalence.

5.2.3 Unsustainable livelihoods Findings show that poor sanitation is the most common impact affecting 26% of the residents’ sampled out. There is absence of adequate water to clean the lavatories and clean the house resulting to bad odour causing discomfort. Study also shows that some of the residents had lost their means of income as a result of inadequate water. Women who go cleaning clothes at fee of Kshs 200 - 500 for the well up households in some apartments are affected by water rationing losing their source of income. Time spent looking for water affects the residents’ economic capability as many are forced to close their small retail businesses in search of water.

Impacts of inadequate water supply and sanitation

26% 35% Unsustainable livelihoods

prevalence of disease outbreaks

39% overexploitation by private service providers

Figure 5.5: Impacts of inadequate water supply and sanitation in Huruma

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

5.3 Roles of stakeholders and avenues of community participation in promotingadequatewater supply and sanitation

5.3.1 Role of the government Currently the water supplied in Huruma comes from the Nairobi Water Company. Even though the north eastern branch of the offices of the Nairobi Water Company is located in

Kariobangi North just few kilometers from Huruma Estate, the water supply levels in this estate is wanting. There are no adequate piped systems to ensure sufficient supply. Similarly the sanitation and sewer system for domestic waste water management are absent thus the degenerated waste water management methods.

The solid waste management systems in the area are also absent as domestic solid waste is mostly seen by the road sides. Even though the City Council collects tax and duties from the small scale traders in this area their services in the solid waste management and collection has always been wanting. Occasionally after several complaints from the public they will collect the waste and take to the Dandora dumpsite that is just afew kilometers from the estate.

Only 32% of the people interviewed were satisfied by the functions of the government. 52% respondents felt that the government has neglected their plight when it comes to water and sanitation while the rest 16% feel the government is not necessarily important in the provision of water services and is a subject of self-reliance.

Level of Satisfaction with Government Roles

Self reliance 16% Satisfied 32%

Disatisfied 52%

Figure 5.6: Level of satisfaction with Government roles

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

5.3.2 Role of the community members Most of the residents are financially crippled to venture to the water and sanitation services provision. The few water vendors who offer their services in the times of rationing and inadequacies have often drawn the water they sell from questionable sources. This is risky and exposes the residents to diseases. The residents complained that some unscrupulous vendors would take advantage of how desperate they are in times of water shortages and sell them water of questionable qualities. This has often resulted into disease outbreaks.

In the solid waste management sector the communities members are doing very little to ensure proper management of the waste. They haphazardly throw away their domestic solid waste in any open space available. This also poses a risk for various vector borne diseases. However some youth groups have ventured into weekly collection of the solid refuse from the households. This service is charged at Kshs 100 per month. The waste collected is then transported to the Dandora dumpsite via hard carts. This is also an avenue where the government should venture into and support the youth in the management of the solid waste.

5.3.3 Role of NGOs Several NGOs have ventured into the water and sanitation services provision in the Estate. But the one that stands out for impacting positive according to this study is the Umande Trust. Umande Trust is a Kibera based organization that deals with civil society advocacy; solid waste management; water and sanitation for the urban; and integrated urban environmental planning. In the different slums as they showed in the interview schedule, they have developed more than sixty bio centres in a view to curb the problems of solid waste as well as ensure adequate water supply to the residents of the slums. In Huruma Estate they have put up some bio centres into some of the villages and handed over to youth groups and women groups to manage and run. The services of the facilities are water selling, offering shower services, toilets, and in return generate bio- gas which is burned for local use in the facility.All the respondents in the area acknowledged the roles played by Umande Trust in the provision of water and sanitation services in the area.

Name of the village Name of the bio centre Kasonovo Kasonovo bio centre Kibichoi Uwezo Mpya bio centre Kitasuru Wonderful Brothers water kiosk Table 5.1: Umande Trust established Bio Centres

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

Taking into account that this is an NGO, it then goes without saying that the quality of the water and sanitation services can be greatly improved with adequate government funding and involvement. The fact that this nascent organization has gone into some villages shows the potential how much the NGO’s can excel in areas where the government have neglected for many years. However it is also challenged with the inadequacies in the funds for improving the services offered.

Plate 5.6:Part of a treatment plant in Kasonovo Bio centre

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

The other water and sanitation service providers are the vendors, and taps within the household. Few people interviewed in the research acknowledged the harnessing of

40 rainwater for domestic use. This can be attributed to the fact that most of the housing structures in the setting do not have adequate rainwater harnessing facilities.

The water in these kiosks is sold at 10 shillings for a twenty litre jerican. This price is uniform across the area. During the water rationing period, the people of Huruma resort to getting water from the vendors. This is because the bio-centres are often the most affected during the rationing period since they get their water mainly from the Nairobi water and sewerage company.

Plate 5.7: Water kiosk managed by a private group in the estate

(Source: Field Data, 2014)

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

6.1 Summary of the Findings Findings show that the leading causes of inadequate water supply and sanitation were rapid population increase which has been exacerbated by the rapid infrastructural developments especially increased residential developments which has strained the available water and sanitation facilities. Others include low income levels visa vies uncompetitive charges and depleted water towers and inadequate dump sites. Some of the impacts of inadequate water supply and sanitation included unsustainable livelihoods, prevalence of disease outbreaks and overexploitation by private service providers. It was also found out that the community has a vital role in provision of water and sanitation facilities among the residence with only 32% satisfied with the role of government.

6.2 Conclusions There is need for adequate government and other stakeholder involvement in the goal of ensuring that every member of the society has adequate access to water and sanitation services supply. This is in tandem with the millennium development goals that looks forward to ensuring that everybody has access to safe water in the right quality and quantity.

Empirically it was found that the problem of inadequate water supply and sanitation was mainly propagated due to increased population in the area as the chief main cause. Findings also show that uncontrolled 42rbanization exists on massive scale and strangulates efforts to supply water and sanitation since it makes it difficult for NCWSC to map out strategy for effective water and sanitation service delivery. Results from the study enable us to understand the broader context of issues affecting urban water and sanitation supply. The overall implication of the study is for all stakeholders to play an active role in abide to address water and sanitation problem.

6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS

6.3.1 Government  The government should venture into the provision of water in Huruma Estate to subsidize the strains the water service sector faces in the area  A solid waste management system should be put in place to ensure proper management of the domestic waste in the area.  Government should put in place campaigns for pro-environment activities that ensure sustainability such as responsible use of the water resources, re-use, reduction and recycling of resources to avoid wastages and protect the environment from degradation.  The responsible government institutions for example the ministry of Public Health and Sanitation should ensure enforcement of the public health policies and laws to protect the people from exposure to hazards such as those experienced in the open dumpsites within the area.  The ministry of Environment and Natural Resources should ensure proper and adequate enforcement of EMCA regulation to control the rate of environmental degradation.

6.3.2 Private sector and NGOs  Should act as watchdogs to ensure that the environmental laws are adhered to and champion for the rights of the local residents especially in the sector of water and sanitation.  Should continue to provide for the water and sanitation services in the area and source for more funds for these services to help the government in service provision.  They should empower the local residents through seminars, workshops and trainings on the issues of responsible use of the available resources to ensure sustainability.  Engage the women, youth and self-help groups in Huruma Estate in the management and preservation of the environment and its resources to ensure sustainability.

 Organize community outreach and extension programmes with the local residents to sensitize them on the issues of adequate and proper management of domestic waste.  Engage the residents in the waste recycling activities to ensure the least quantity of waste is left for dumping.

6.3.3 Community members  Engage in sustainable and responsible use of the water resources to reduce wastage and cases of shortages.  Encourage one another to adopt waste management techniques and behaviour to reduce the amount of waste generated from the households,  Sort the waste from the household level for easier reuse, reduction and recycling where possible.  Engage in water saving campaigns such as slogan like ―Every Drop Counts‖ across the community to sensitize the community members in the need to conserve the water resources.  Active engage in and practice pro-environment activities to ensure sustainability. For example tree planting to increase the tree cover of the country thus improving the water catchment capability in the country.  Continuously engage and confront the government and various stakeholders in the water and sanitation sector to ensure that the services are offered as stipulated by the government legislations and policies. For example the constitution of Kenya stipulates that water is a human right and thus the government should make sure that each and every citizen has access to it. The residents should engage the government in all the avenues possible to ensure that this is done. Some of the institutions that should improve their functions and the implementations of their mandate include:

Nairobi Water Services Board

There is need for these important institutions to hold barazas and sensitize Huruma residents on the various reforms that are on-going reforms in the water sector. The board

44 should also embark on monitoring and evaluation of the use of the water resources not only in Huruma Estate but also in the entire Nairobi County. The institution should also train the community members on the need for proper use and conservation of the available water resources.

Water Resources Management Authority

The role in the restoration, rehabilitation and management of the water catchments should be improved on. The Aberdare forest rehabilitation should receive the maximum attention and dedication to ensure that the catchments are fully rehabilitated to ensure the water catchments capacity of the forest is restored. This role should extend to the various catchments across the entire country to ensure that cases of water rationing are not reported.

Nairobi Water and Sewerage Company

The supply of water and sanitation facilities should be improved in the informal settlements. The company should engage in the development of reservoirs and storage facilities that can harness water in times of rains and supply to the residents during the times of water shortages. The management of the domestic refuse should be equally improved to ensure that the waste is collected and properly disposed of. The company should organize workshops and seminars to sensitize the slum residents on the need for conservation use of water resources as well the need for proper waste management.

Nairobi County Council

The institution should engage in proper and adequate waste management in the informal settlements. They should develop strategic solid waste collection points as well as put in place the facilities required for the proper management of the waste water.

The council can also embark on reduce, reuse, recycle campaign to sensitize the resident on the need to protect their environment. This would reduce as the amount of the solid waste that is usually thrown haphazardly in the road sides and the open spaces in the slums. The infrastructure for the solid waste recycling and waste water treatment should be designed to ensure that the waste is properly treated to ensure that the public is not

45 exposed to the effects of wastes carelessly dumped in the informal unplanned for settlements.

The council should also develop a sustainable sanitary landfill to replace the Dandora dumpsite that continues to expose the resident of Huruma Estate and its neighborhoods to various health problems. This call for adequate funding forms the relevant government institutions to help finance such a development.

For successful and adequate supply of water and sanitation to the entire residents of Huruma Estate, there is need for the involvement of all the various stakeholders involved in the services provision. The government, the private sector and the communities should be engaged in all the programmes in place for water and sanitation services.

Areas for further studies

 Future studies should be carried to establish the viability of use of zoning and buildings control to address urban utility provision challenges.  More research can be done on the socio-psychological impacts of inadequate water and sanitation supply on women and children of urban population.  More research can be carried out to explore the feasibility of alternative sources of water such as roof catchment and borehole as a lasting solution to inadequate water shortages.  Lastly, research can be carried out on alternative areas to relocate the already full to capacity Dandora Dumping Site.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Interview schedule Name of the institution…………………………

1. What do you think is the state of water supply in Huruma Estate? 2. In your opinion what is the state of sanitation facilities in Huruma Estate? a) Adequacy b) Reliability c) Accessibility d) Quantity and quality 3. How do you contribute to the water and sanitation sector in Huruma Estate? 4. What are some of the problems you face in your strive towards the provision of water and sanitation services in Huruma Estate? 5. What remedial measures have you set to counter the above problems? 6. Are there other approaches you think should be employed to ensure sustainable water and sanitation services in Huruma Estate? 7. Are there other institutions in the area that also work in the water and sanitation sector in the area? 8. Suggest ways you think the water and sanitation supply in Huruma can be achieved

Thank you.

Appendix 2: Household Questionnaire. Name of Interviewer: …………………………………………………………………

Registration Number: ………………………………………………………………..

Consent

I am undertaking a research project on an assessment of challenges of water supply and sanitation in uncontrolled residential developments of Huruma Estate, Nairobi County.

The information obtained from the respondents will be treated confidential and will only be used for academic purposes.

Section A; SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC DATA

Date of interview………………………

1. Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ] 2. Age: 18-27 [ ] 28-37 [ ] 38-47 [ ] 48-57 [ ] 58-67 [ ] Above 67 [ ] 3. Level of education No formal education Primary Secondary College University

4. Monthly income: <2,000 [ ] 2,001-6,000 [ ] 6,001-10,000 [ ] 10,001- 15,000 [ ] 15,001 and above [ ] 5. Number of people in the household: ………. 6. For how long have you been living here? ...... 7. Where did you migrate from

From within Starehe District From within Nairobi county From other parts of Kenya. (specify)

8. What was/were your reason(s) for migration? ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………

Section B

1. How many liters of water do you consume in a day? Below 20 ltrs [ ] 21-40 ltrs [ ] 41-60 ltrs [ ] above 61 ltrs [ ] 2. a) Are there days when water is not available? Yes [ ] No [ ] b) If yes, how many days is the water not available? 1-3 days [ ] 4-6 days [ ] 7-10 days [ ] 3. Are you satisfied with the role the government plays on provision of water and sanitation services? Satisfied [ ] Dissatisfied [ ] Self-reliance [ ] 4. What efforts have you embraced to ensure there is adequate water and sanitation?......

5. How long do you take to the water source? In house < 30 minutes Between 30minutes to 1 hour Over 1hour

TICK WHERE APPROPRIATE

Question Variables Yes No Sources of water Rivers Boreholes Piped water Water Vendors Roof Catchments

Question Variables Yes No

What are the causes of Rapid population growth inadequate water supply and Low levels of income compared to charges sanitation Infrastructure development Depleted water towers and inadequate dump sites Other causes ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………

TICK APPROPRIATLY

Variables Attributes Yes No How inadequate water and Disease outbreaks sanitation affected your Unsustainable livelihoods livelihood? Overexploitation by private service providers Others (specify)

Thank you for your assistance

Appendix 3:Focus Group Discussion 1) What is your role in provision of water and sanitation facilities in Huruma estate? 2) Do you think community participation in planning, implementation and management of water and sanitation project is feasible? 3) Are you satisfied with the current roles of various stakeholders in provision of water and sanitation and in what ways are you prepared to cooperate with other institutions to address water and sanitation challenges? 4) Which community based projects are you willing to initiate in-order to cater for water and sanitation services?

Appendix 4: A checklist of available water sources Water Available Functional Physical Main uses General Yes/No Yes/No Sources condition remarks

Rivers Boreholes Piped water Water kiosks Roof catchments