UNIT 40 THE PRE-RAPHAELITE BROTNERHO0D:DANTE GABRIEL AND

Structure

4O:O Objectives 40.1 Introduction 40.2 The Pre-Raphaelitc Brotl~erl~ood:A MOVC~IIC~~~ill Art and Litcrat~lrc 40.3 Dantc Gabriel Rossetti I 40.3.1 EarlyWot'ks 40.3.2 Personal Exper~ences 40.3 3 Porlrayal of Wornell ' 40.3.4 Literary Endw\lours 40.4 The Poems 80.4.1 "My Sister's Sleep," 40.4.2 "The Blessed Damozcl" 40.5 Christina Rossetti 40.5.1 "Goblin Market" 40.6 Let's sun1 up 40.7 Suggested Readings' 40.8 Bibliography

40.0 OBJECTIVES

I I After reading this unit you will be able to: write about the Pre-Raphaelite Move~~lcntin art and literature in thc nineteentll century. understand thc and acl~ieveincntsof two of its practit~oncrs.Dantc . Gabriel Rossetti and llis sister, Christina Rossetti. 1 be aquainted with some of their poems.

I I I - 40.1 INTRODUCTION ! ---- TMs unit will first faniliar~zeyou with the Prc-Raphaelite Movemcllt that took placc in the ninetecntl~century. Then it will speak of two poets of the movcmcnt. Dantc Gabriel Rossetti and Christina Rossctti, analyzing two of the for~ncr'spoems and oiic by the latter.

I ----- 40.2 THE PRE-RAPHAELITE BROTHERHOOD :A 1

MOVEMENT IN ART AND LITERATURE -

The Pre-Raphaelite Movemcilt was not a movement collfi~ledto litcraturc In i'act. ~t ' started with paullhng. In 1848 a group of young British painters banded togethcr in n reaction to what they co~lccivedas the unimaginative painting of thc Royal Acadcm!. . Tlley purportedly sought to express a new moral seriousness and sinccrit! in thcir works. They were inspired by Italian art of the 14Ih ai~d15"' centuries. and thcir adoptign of tlle name Pre-Raphaelite esprcsscd their adnliration for what tl1c.c sax\ as 68 the direct and uncomplicated depiction of nature t!iplcal of ltaliail painting beforc thc

B High Renaissance and, particularly, before the time of ~a~hael.*Although the Prc- , The Prc-Rill)haclitcs, Raphaelite Brotherhood's active life lasted less than 10 years, its influence on painting in Britain, and ultimately on the decorative arts and interior design, \Tias I profound.

Apart froin Dai~teGabriel Rossetti. the re-~a~l~aelite'Brotl~erl~ood coil~prised Holman Hunt, and . They were all under 25. The painter James Coilinson. the painter.and critic F.G. Stephens, tlld sculptor Thoinas 'iVoolner, and the critic Willianl Michael Rossetti (Dante Gabriel's brother) joined them by invitati&. William Dyce and Ford Madox Brow11 were also notablc practitioners of the Pre-Raphaelite style in painting.

Paintings: L-, The Brotherhood iininediately begail to produce highly 'convincing and signit?cant works. Their pictures of religious and nledieval subjects emulated the decp religious feeling a11d naive, unadorned directness of 15 t11-century Florentine and Sicilesc pai~iting.The style that Hunt and Mil.lais evolved featured sharp and brilliant lighting, a clear atn~ospheye,and a near-photographic reproduction of illinute details. They also frequently introduced a private poetic. symbolism into their representations of Biblical subjects and medieval literaiy themes. Vitality and freshness of vision are the most admirable qualities of these early Pre-Rapllaeiitc paintings.

~t first tl~eBrothcihood eshibitcd together anoi~yinously~signing all their paintings with tlle monogrmn PRB. Wllcn their identity and yo~~il~were discovered in 1850, 'tl~eirwork was harshly criticized by the novelist Charles Diclcens. among otl~ers.not oilly -for its disregard of academic ideals of beauty but also for its apparent irreverence in treatii~g.religioilstheines with a1 uncoillpro~nisiilg~ealism. Nevertlleless. the leading art critic of tl~cday, . stoutly defended Pre- Raphaelite art, and the meillbers of the group were nevcr without patrons.

40.3 : INTRODUCTION TO THE POET

D. G.Rossetti [original name GABRIEL CHARLES DANTE ROSSETTI] (1 828-- 1882)], was an English painter and poet 1~110helped thc Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood. He was educated at King's College before he \vent to "Sass's,.' an old- fashioned drawing school in Bloomsbury (central ), and theilcc to tl~cRoyal Acade~nyscl~ools, where he bccame a full student. A voracious rcader. 11c was well read in Willinill Shdcespearc, J.W. veil Goethe, Lord B~roil,Sir Walter Scott. He was fascinated by Gothic tales of horror and the work of the American writer Edgar Allan Poe. 111 1 847 he discovered the 18tl~-cent~1ryE~lglisl~ painter -poet Willianl Blalce whose diatribes against the paii~terSir Joshua Reynolds encouraged Rossetti to attempt lainpooils of his own against the triviality of early Victorian paintings.

By the time Rossetti was 20, he had already done a nuil~berof translations of Italian poets and had also composed some original verse. Simultaneously, 11e was in suld out of artists' studios and for a short tiine was, in an informal way, a pupil of the painter Ford Mados Brown. He acquired soillc of Bro.tvn's adi~~irationfor the Gcril~an"Pre-

* RAPHAELO1483-1520) Italian artist, master painter and architect of the Italian High Raffaello Sanzio Renaissance. He was a disciple of artists like Leonardo do Vinch,&ildMichelailgelo. Rapllael is best kno~vnfor his Mado!~nas and for his large figure conlpositions in tl~eVatican in Rome. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition and for its visual achievement. 0 9 lil d \iho Iind sought Lo br~ngback rirrn Poetry Raphaclites... the nick~lalneof thc austere Nnzarenes. into Germail art a prc-Rci~aissai~cepurit! of stylc and am.

Largely through Rossetti's efforts, the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherl~ood was fornlcd in 1848 with seven mcuzbers, all Koyal Acadell~ystudents cscept for William M~chael Rossetti. They aimed at 'Ynlth to izature," which was to be acli~c\ledby minutcncss of

.* The Nazarenes (so called because they sported the biblical style of hair and dress) was an association of German painters, formed in 1809, who wished to revive the medieval spirit in art through fresco painting. It was anti- academic movement that reacted against the 18Ih century Neoclassicism. The Ilazarenes' belief in the honest expression of deeply felt deals had an important influence on the English Pre-Raphaelite movement of the mid- nineteenth century. tlctail and painting from naturc outdoors. This was, more cspeci~ily,tllc purpose of The Pre-Raph;lclitcs the t~voother principal members, William Hol~nanHunt and John Everett Millais. Rossetti expanded the Brotherhood's ainls by linl

40.3.1 Early Works

. Rossetti's earl?; oil paintings werc simple in style but eluboratc in s~~mbolism.Some of tllc same atmosphcrc is felt in thc rich \~,ord-paintingand cn~otionalforcc of 11is q:3u* poem "The Blessed Danozel," published in 1850 in the tirst issue of The Ccrnz, tl~cPre -Raphaelite magazine. When it was exhibited in 1850, his painting "" received severe criticis~n,which Rossetti could never bcar with equanimity. 111 consequence. hc ceased to show in public and gave up oils in favour of ~~~atercolours,whicl~ hc could morc easily dispose of to personal acquaintances. He also turned ikom traditional religious tllemcs to painting scencs from Shakespeare, Robert Bro\vning, and Dantc, \t;hich allowed no re firccdo~llof illlagi~lativc t rcatment.

40.3.2 Personal experier~ces

Much of Rossetti.~work has its roots io his personal lifc His paintings and pocms are based on lived events and espel-icnces ancl tllc persons they imhortalize are generally intimately connected ~vithhis 1,ifcand ~vorlc:the p~~blicand the perso~lalare not separate. Hence, so~llcawarcncss of his'pcrsonal lifc, a11dthe peoplc 11c calllc into close contact with, is essential for a proper understanding of his \vorl<.

An important chapter in ~ossctti'slife began in the 1850s with thc introduction illto thc Prc-Rapl~aelitccircle of the beautiful E1iz;lbeth Siddal. ~vhosaved at first as , iuodel for thc whole group b~itwas soon attached to Rossctti alo~ieand, in 1860. married him. Many portrait drawings testify to his affection for hcr.111 1854 Rossctti gained a po~verfi~lbut exacting patron in the art critic John Ruskin. By then the Pre- Raphaelite Brotherl~oodwas at 3.11cnd, splintered by the diffcrcilt interests and temperaments of its members, But Rossctti's magnetic personality aroused a fresh wave of entl~usiasm.In 1856 hc came into contact \vith thc illen-0sford ~~ndcrsrahuatesEdward Bulnc-Jones and Willia~iiMorris. With tllcse t~voyoung disciples llc initiatcd a, sccond phasc of the Prc-~aph&litcmovcmcnt. .

Fro111 1860 ol.lward, trials wcre part of Rossetti's much-disturbed lifc. H~Smarriagc to , cloudcd by her constant ill health, endcd tragically in 1862 with her dzath from an overdose of laudantun. He was so stricken with grief and rcmorse that he buried wit11 hcr tlic only co~upletemanuscript of his poems. That he co~lsidercdhis love for his wifc similar to Dantc's mystical and idealized lovc for Bcatrice is evident fon1 the syl~lbolic"Beata Bc~~tris,"painted in 1863 and no\$ in the Tate Gallery.

40.3.3 Portrayal of women

Under lllc influence of new friends --- Algcrllon Charlcs Swinbutnc ancl thc Ainer~canpainter James McNcill Whistlcr --- Rossctti csplored a morc aesthetic and sci~suousapproach to art. In particular. he foc~isedon portrayals of fcmalc beauty,

1 - *** L : A periodical edited by W. M.Rossetti, of which the first issue j appeared on Jan 1, 1850. The Germ was the spokesman of the Pre- 'i Raphaelite Brotherhood but survived only four issues, the last appearing 011 $ April 30, 1850. The last two issues of the journal were renamed Art and Poetry, being Thoughts Towards Nature. The Germ published the poems of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and is believed to have inspired 's Oxford and ~ambridg'eMagazinee(1856) which continued the Pre- Raphaelite movement. ~ictorirmpoitry Such as his mistress; Faimy Cornforth, gorgeousl\; appareled and painted. Among these works is "" (I 871 -79). Thc luxuriant colours and rbythinic design of these paintings enhance thc effect of their languid. sensuo~~s feillale subjects, all of whom bear a distiiictive "Prc-Raphaelite" facial t!.pc. The paintings proved popular with collectors, and Rossetti grew affluent enough to einploy studio assistants to mal

40.3.4 Literary Endeavours

Rossetti had enjoyed a modest success in 1861 with his published translations. 7%~ Early Italian Poets; and toward the end of the 1860s his thoughts tur~iedto poctr!. agaiil. He begw con~posingnew poenls and planned tlie recovery of thc manuscripl poenls buried with his wife in Highgate Cemetery. Carried o~itin 1869 through rhc agency of hi's uilconveritional inan of business, Charles Augustus Howcll. the esl~uinationgreatly distressedthe superstitious Rossetti. The p~tblicatioilof these poeins followed in 1870.

TIte Poems were well enough received until a misdirected: savage onslaught b!, "Thomas Maitland" (pseudoiiyn of the journalist-critic ~obei-tBuchanai~) on "The . Fleshly School of Poetry" singled out Rossetti for attack. Rossetti resj~ondcd temperately ill "The Stealthy School of Criticism," published ill the AI~~~MNPII/~~: but the attack, combined with renlorse and the amo~intof drugs and alcohol lie no\\ took for insomnia: brought about his collapse in 1872. He I-ccovered sulfticicntl!. 1:o paint and write, but his life was suLisequently that of a senli-invalid and reclusc. In the early 1880s Rossetti occupied himself with a rcplica of aii early watercolour. "Dante's Dream" (1880), a revised edition of Po~n2.s (I 88 l), and II~llr1~1.sls~tld Sonnets (188 I), conta.ining the conlpleted sonnet sequence of "The ~buscof Lifc." in which he described the love betweell inan a11d woi1lan with tragic intcilsit) . From a visit to Keswick (in nortllwesteri~England) in I88 I., Rossetti returned in worse health than before, and he died the follo\~ingspring.

Rossetti remains an important figure 111 tllc histon, of 19th-cent~~ntEnglish nrl ancl literature because he brolce with traditioil and expcr~mented11, it11 II~~YIhcincs What 1s remarkable in his work is his eye for detail, througll his painting as wcll as 111s poems In his poetry, through the accuiuulation of details and the building up of a dccp eillotioilal intensity, hc is able to create the desired atmosphcrc cfi~cctivclyThis IS wliat he does in his poem "My Sister's Sleep" \vI~ercoilc can alniost fccl tl~csr lcncc and sickiless of the woman's rooill and the sense of do0111 that prcvails 111 othcr poems, too, he cmploys siillilar effccts, as in "The Wood Spurge" and tlic 1) r~c'-1 have been here before. "The Stream's Secret," ha~ultcdby the ghost of his dead n lSc. evokes pity and regret by the power of its vcrbal music. This theme of dcatli. grlcf and loilgiilg is a yroitunent one in thc work of Rossetti. Tlic relation bct~ecn life nncl death, the physical and the spiritual, haunted Ilii~ithroughout. heightcncd particularl! by the tragic loss of his wife.

Rossetti's poetic art Ilad other, less sub.jective aspects. "Thc Last Confessioi~.~'a

tragic episode set against a backgro~i,nd of the Itallan Risorgi~nento(the mo\~crncnt' for the liberation and unificaticjn of Italy, 1750-1870). is a po\vcrf~~ldram:~tic illoi~ologuethat can bear comparison with those of Robcrt Bro\vning. With his feclinp for medieval subjects, Rossetti also caught the spirit of the ballad as in his "Sistcr Helen" and "Eden Bower." "The White Ship" and "The ICing's Tragcd!.." arc outstandiiig re-creations of the historical ballad. Early in Rossetti's carcer. tlle siglit. of thc great winged bulls in tlle British Museunl evolted his poem "8urcleii of ' Ninevell" (1850), a meditation on the unpredictable course of his to^?. that is rich In word-music aid far-ranging in imagiilative vision. . . 40.4 THEPOEMS . The Pre-Ri~l~hitdites . t In this sectjon you will read two poems of D.G. Rossetti. They are 'My Sister's I Sleep' and 'The Blessed Damozel'. \ /

40.4.1 "My Sister" Sleep"

In "My Sister's Sleep" Rossetti attempts with the help of words what the Pre- Raphaelite painters did wit11 paintbrush and easel in their paintings: he uses verbal effects wherc they use colours and paints to evoke a realistic scene in the minutest 8 * detail. The setting appears to be the Rossetti hoine but the dying sister is a figment of his imagination. 1 . ' ' Thc poem is remarkable for its creation of a hushed atmosphere, its concentration of detail, and its visual images. There is in the poem the sorrow that is inevitably 1 related to death and the idea of dying. But the sorr'ow does not become cla~~strophobicallyunbearable as there is an elenlent of equcmiillitythat pervades the . poem. a calmness that makes sorrow an acceptable reality, I Rossetti's, poetic style needs a special mentipn. He tends to use nlonosyllabic words and his lines are short, composed in simple iambic (an unstressed and a stressed s~.llable)tetrameter (tl~rcefeet in each line). The stanzaic pattern is rhymed abhn quatrains. What holds the attention most, however, is not the technicalities of the poenl but the play of light and colour throughout. Rossetti remaills a painter even in his poems, creating visual art with words. His poetry appeals more through the images it evokes tl~aiithe ideas it contains.

As is evident from "My Sister's Sleep," Pre-Raphaelite poetry generrally focuses on a single female figure: its beauty, grace, and divinity is evoked in sensuous detail. One may notice a romantic idealization of womanhood in these portrayals. The woincn, as in ronlantic poetry, are frail, weak, weeping, pining, swooning or dying. They need to be lookcd after, to be supported, to be protected. Tnie, this is a cha~ivinisticview, but such was the stereotype favoured in the nineteenth century. Anything different \\las seen as an anomaly. Such is also the female figure presented in Rossetti's "The Blessed Damozel."

40.4.2 "The Blessed Damozel" -.. I -The Blcssed Dm~ozel"was first written in 1847, when Rossetti 'was 1 9, and published in The Germ in 1850. There is also a painting by Rossetti of the same subject \vhich dates much later (between 1875 1879). The poem, as Rossetti himself said, is inspired by Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven" in which speaks of a grief-stricken lover. The'Rossetti's were familiar with foreigh literatures and had discovered Poe's work much before it hit the European scene. As Rossetti was to statc later in life, "I saw that Poe had done the utmost it was possible to do wit11 the grief of the lover on earth, and so I determined to reverse the condition, and give utterance to the yeanling'of the loved one in lieaven."

So, in Rossetti's poem, the bcloved is in heaven, longing for her lover who has survived her on earth. One may trace in the poem the obvious influence of Dante Just as Dantc, in his Divine Cornen'?],glorifies his beloved, Beatrice, and looks on her . as a medium that will take him to divinity, so too, Rossetti looks upon thc woman ~n' tl~~poem as some kind of a divine creature, looking down at her mortal lover: Like . Dante's 15oei11, "The Blessed Damozel" combiiles physical love with the'spiritual:. secking a plane that transcends earthly bonds.

The maililer in which Rossetti turns to l~eavenand to a spiritual after-life would convey the idea that llis is religious poetry. In fact, the title of his poeill ("The Hlcssed Dallloml'.) brings to nlind thc Virgin Man But Rossctti's intc~ltiaiinas ncvcr to kyritcfor rcligio~lspLlrposcs. 011 the contran.. \\~CSC~Srcligion bcli~\,~~in a sl~cdd~~~~of all carthl!- bonds follouiiiig a union ~ithGod. thc idea Rossctti prcscllts ill --~l~c~l~~~cd Damozc19'is that calthiy lovc s~lrvivcsin hcavcn. Tllcrc is also a lot that thc rcligioLis-mindcdwould oblcct to is his portrayal of thc discollsolntc ~voman-sindiffcren.cc to all heavcnly delights in hcr disconsolate, grief-stricl,~LII stntc

TIle poclll begins a pictllre of the bclovcd in her hcavci~l~abode. But shc is discolltcntcd alld sorrolvfi~l.Oblivious of all the bcmtics that surround hcl.. she loolts do\vn at tthc earth below:

The blcssed daillozcl lcancd out Froill thc gold bar of hcavcn: Wcr cycs wcrc decper than tlie dcpth Of waters stillcd at evcn; Shc had three lilics in her band. And tl~cstars in hcr hair wcrc scvcn.

This opcllillg stanza ofthe pocm prepares us for \!'hat is to follo~\.It "locates" thc pocm. so to speak. identifies its main character. and poiilts n cue to the st>.listic devices the poet uscs.

Locatio11-nfisc.the scene is heavcn. But tkcre 1s an aillbivalcllcc in ~ossctti's' portrayal of heaven: the "gold bar" br~ngsto mind tllc bars of a prison. it suggcsts a lack of frcedom. For the woman. no doubt, 11eavc11is a prison that kccps her awa! froin her tnie love. (The last stanza of thc pocm +I 1 tell us tllat tl~c~'arc "goldcn barriers.") Similariy, thcre is irony in the poct's usc of tllc adjcctivc "blcsscd" for the girl. A blcssed state generally coiinotcs contei~tmcnt..bliss,pcacc, shades of di\finity Jn the girl-s case, however. therc is ncithcr peace nor happiness. Even thoi~ghher sorrow is not outlined in the opening lincs. a suggcstioil of it is prcscnt in thc "bar" that confines her to hcavcil and in the nlystcrious dcpll~sof ller cycs (1.3).

The description of the girl merits sonlc nlorc attcntion. The three lilics in llcr Iland and scven stars in her hair are a statenlent on thc Prc-Raphaclite poetic mcthod: its cnncentration on minute detail in ordcr to creatc a realistic picturc. Thcrc is also a [omalltic eleinent in the description of the girl with languid, dccp c!-cs. ndorilccl \\it11 flowers and stars, leaning over the gold bar. It rcnlinds us of idcalizcd female f'igurcs . in roinantic poetry. As \ve.procecd further into the poem, this impression is rclnforced when \ve arc told that the woillail pining for her lovcr. This briilqs to mind the \voman wailing for her denloll lover in Colcridgc's "Kubla Khan." But tllc situation is somewhat diffcrcilt because in Rossctti's poctll it is thc \vomalJ who is divine ("blcssed") while her lovcr is mortal.

T11e poeln may be divided into two aln~ostcqual parts. Thc .First half (65 lincs) of tlic pocin concentrate on the forlorn \\roman's elysian surroundings wl~ilcthe sccond half comprises inainly her monologue, her yearning for hcr lost lovc.

In thc first half of thc poem tllcre is a constnilt play on tllc polarities of this \\forldthat the girl now idlabits (heaven) and thc othcr world (thc earth) tllat sllc has lcft far behind, that lics way below. It nlay be noted that whereas thc first is dcscribcd in delaii, the sccond (the carth) is not dcscribcd at all and thcrc is a collstant rd'crcnct. Lo the gap, tllc cl~asinthat scparatcs tllc two. Even thougll thc girl tries I~nrdto sce wliat is happening in the world bclow, she is unablc to do so. All shc sccs is ~nistsnncl darkness. both syi~~bol~cof hcr unmitigated dcspair.

The poem does not end on a note of hopc even though there is a tclnporal?* calming of grief in the penultimate stanza when the girl is ‘.Less sad of spccch" and sl~c smiles. It is alillost as shc coi~solesl~crself. reconciling herself to her present forlornness. Perllaps in Ilcr heart of hcarts shc knows that rcuilioll is impossible. all(1 she realizes the fi~tilit):of her longing. bcca~~sethc coilcluding stanza tells us again The P~.e-Ri~l)lli~elitc~ that shc wccps with her face buried in her hands.

Dcspair. in Rossctti's vision, is also to bc foulld in hcavcn! Dcspair and longing for cnrthlf bliss. for 11uman love.

Simple exercises for comprehension:

I. Sho~vhow Rossetti ill his poeills uses words the way a painter uses colours. [You will llave too look at the poems carehlly and study the imnges they dcscribe, their concei~tralion011 detail, the use of colour, Iight, and shadows. You will also assess thc syillbolic valuc of tllc images and their r 1 appropriateness in the givcn context. I

Explain how Rossetti is coilceriled with tl~ecoililection between this physical \rrorld and tlle other ~vorfdof' afterlife. Do you find traces of romc?.i~ticismin this conccrn'? Illustrater\;p~~~ailswcr with the hclp of the thcnles and iillages cmployed 'in his poe~ils. [~~.fHl$q~icstionyou will first sp& of the thc~llc of death in both the p,oems"ih~~llave becil discussed in this unit. Tllcn you ~villstlow how dear11 11as been treated. You will try .to figure out in what cva~.it is co~moetidwith earthly esistknce. Which of the two. in your opii~ion,seei-ns.;iiiore satisfying to tl~epoet? Life or death?]

With the help of the two poci~lsyou have read by Rossetti, conlillent on the Pre-Raphaelite treatnlent of women. [Keep in mind that the important \vomen in Rossetti's life were iilitially illodcls who posed for the young painters. So, for the Pre-Raphaelites they were tools that could takc them towafds succcss. Paradosically, cvcn tllough they could be "hired" in the comin~alsensc, thesc wonlcil wcrc idealized by the Pre-Raphaelites. They wcrc not vi'sualizcd as drab, ordinary womcn, but as divinc, ethcrcal creatures. So tllc womcil they painted or wrote about werc transformed from ordinary, realistic buman beings into extraordinary, "blcsscd" creatures who. by virtue of tl~cirsuffcriilg or by dying, acquircd a halo of divinity. The ., pchs scemed to belicvc in the romailtic concept of women as creatures who are fiail and may swoon, faint or die. This point may be easily illustrated wit11 tllc liclp of Rossctti's work.]

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11 d<~ a 40.5 CHRISTINA ROSSETTI 9 "$ 1'? >+& CHRISTINA GEORGINA ROSSETTI, pseudony~nELLEN ALLEYNE (b. 1830-- i 1894). one of the most important of ninetecnt11-century English womcn pocts both in rallgc and quality. Chrjstiaa was the youngest child of Gabriele Rossetti and was the Mctorinn Poetry sister of thc yaintef-poet Dante Gabriel Rossetti. 111 1847 her grandfather. Gactnno L Polidori, printed on his private press a volume of her Verses. in which signs of poct~c talent' are already visible. In 1850, under the pseudonym Ellc~lAlleyne, shc contributed seven poelils to the Pre-Raphaelitc jounlal TIICGernz. In 1853. uhen thc Rossetti family was in financial difficulties. Christina helped her mother kecp n school at Fromc, Somerset, b~itit was not a success. and in 1854 the pair rcturncd to London, u711ere Christina's fatlier dicd. In straitened circumstances, Cl~ristlnac~itcrcd on her life work of compa~ionshipto her mother, detotioil to her religion, and thc: writine; of hcr poetry. She was a firm High Church Anglican, and in 1850 slm bsol

- ...-...... Christina Rovsctti In 1862 Christina Rossetti published Gohlira Market arzil Otlier Poems and in I 866 Tlte Pritzce's Progress and Other Poems, both with frontispiece and decorations by her brother Dante Gabriel. These two collections, which contain most of her finest \\orI<.established her anloilg the poets of her day.

In 187 1 Christina was stricken by Graves' disease, a thyroid disorder that illarred her appearance and left her life in danger. She accepted her affliction with courage and resignation, sustained by religious faith, and she conti~luedto publish, issuing one collectio~lof poenls in 18 75 and A Pageant nr?rl Other Poems in 188 1. But after the onset of her illness she nlostly concentrated on devotional prose writings. Time Flies (1885): a reading diary of mixed verse and prose, is the illost personal of these ~vorks. Christina was coilsidered a possible successor to Lord Alfred Teimyson. as poet laureate, but she developed a fatal cancer in 189 1. New Poems (1 896), published b~. her brother. coiltained unpriitted and previously uncollected poems.

Though she was haupted by ail ideal of spiritual purity that demanded self-dcnial, Christina rcscnlbled her brotl~erDailte Gabriel in certain ways, for beneat11 her h~uil~ility,her devotion, and her quiet, saintlike life lay a passionate and se~lsuous tempersllnent. a keen critical perception, and a lively sense of humour. Part of her success as a poet arises from the fact that shc apparently succeeded in unitii~gthest: two sceillingly coiltradictory sides of her nature, Tbere is a vein of the scilti~llental and didactic in her weaker verse, but at its best her poetry is stgong, personal, and unforced. wit11 a metrical cadence that is ui~mistakablyher own. The transience of inaterial thiilgs is a theille that recurs throughout her poetry, and the resigned but passionate sadness of unhappy love is often a doilliilaili note.

While looking at Christina Rosseai's poetry, one IIILIS~keep certain factors in nlind. hl the first place, it is important to renleinber that in the nineteenth-century Victorigil Age there were several repressive forces constantly operating on women. Wolneil were not supposed to be opinionated. They were convei~tionallyrequired to simply conform to the male lint of thought, Cl~ristiilaRossetti was gifted with a slurp, in~clligentllliild but the keenness of her miild nlas suppressed by thc pressures of social propriety. She lived a Inore or less sheltered life wit11 little contact wit11 tlle world outside except tl~roughher brothers and their bohcilliai~friends. She was not . lear~led,unlike Elizabeth Barrett' Bro~y~ing,m1d reillailled uilesposcd to scl~olastic

theories. Above all, what governed her actions througl-louther life mras her deep ' ' religious belief.

i 40.5.1 "Goblin Market"

.'Goblin Market" is Christina Rossetti's'best known poem. ~nfortunatd~,it is only in recent decades that it has received the attention it deserves. Formerly it was geilcrally relegated to tbe children's literature or fa~~tasyliterature categoiy. The reasoil for its neglect was partly because its' illain characters are two young girls and ' partly because Christina Rossetti's talents reinailled undiscovered until she was resurrected by co~~ttemporaryfm~inist critics.

On the surface level "Goblia Market" (l~encefortl,GM") is what may bc called a "story $oem." Loosely speaking. it may be placed in the ballad tradition. It isa narrative that follows a swift, racy pace, revolvc: .:ound a given character a~d'ller fate, leads up to a central event, and apparently u~lderscoresa (thcn) socially acceptable moral lesson. The distinctive feature lies in that this poem jp labout a ' female cha.racter, her fall froin grace, and SU~SC~L~L~~~redemption, If wc' look at thc tl~eil~ewe find similarities with the ambitious pro.iect tsickled by Milton in his 1'~rncliseLost. There are, howevey, sigi~ificantdifferences: Chistirla Rossetti's poelll speaks of no inalc characters, except for the goblins 1~110arc not human but . I~alf-animals:whereas Milton's epic speaks of the fall of Adam, "GM" speaks of transgression by a female protagonist: the role of a Christ-like sc~vio~lris taken up by mother felllale charactel', the errlng g~rrssister. The central ~llotrfrcmalns thc same Vicioricm Poetry ' succumbing to temptation. suffering as punishment. sacrifice and redempt~on

h the very first lines (11.1-SO), the poeill lays bare the situation: therc arc tu o sisters. Laura and Lizzie, both young,..innocent, and virginal. Aad there is temptution that lurks everywhere in the form of strange, deformed goblins who appear as fr~ut-sellers to seduce

Lines 8 1-140 speak of Laura's transgression: she partaltes 'of the goblins' fruit. paying for then1 with a syinbolic lock of her golden hair, and returns 110111~satiatcd.

A .wise Lizzie upbraids her and reminds her of the ha111 the goblins clid to a cer~ain' Jeanie who had tasted their fmit and died in her youth. Laura, however. is sort oT intoxicated with the goblin's feast and pays little attention (8 1 - 183). As the!. fall asleep, they present a pretty picture (184-198), typically Pre-Raphaelite i11 its dctailccl desciiption. The followiilg day, a change com'es over,the errant girl. She goes about her chores as ' . us~lalbut pines for the night w11en:the goblills would appear again with tllcir wares. .: However, when twilight gathers, her sister, Lizzie can hear the goblins' call but not Laura. This makes Laura realize that her desire for inore fruit from the goblins \\;uuld never bisatisfied and that she is now doomed to a life of fn~strateddesire (199-268). Lines 269 to 328 describe La~lra'ssuffering and decline. It appcars that shc kvill no\\ suffer a fate as miserable as Jeanie's. Finally, when she is at death's door. Lizz~c decides to save her son~ehow,so she goes to the goblin inen and aslcs for somc fru~l Tlze goblins insist that she should eat the fniit in their preseilcc but she rcfuscs to clo so: Thereupoil they are enraged and attack her with thc fruit. trying to forcc I~ctto eat. She stands stiocally, braving their assa~~ltsand is covered wit11 jiliccs (32'1-446) In tk65 dissheveled state, drcnched with fruit-juices, Lizzie ~-iinsllolne and tells Laura to lick the juices off her. The ailing sister does so. and is saved but only aAcr sufering a racing fever (447-542). The concluding lines of tlie poem (543-567) shift the focus into the fi~turcand sgcak of the two sisters as grown women, contented wit11 their l~omcand children. wanlilt& their daughters of the dangers that niay befall them if they go astra!,. ad\ ising tl~cnlto stand by each otller in time of need.

This is tlle Aarrative on tlle obvious level. Writing in tiines when womcn nuru supposed to be angcls in the house, it appears as thougll Christina Rossctti 1s reinforcing the Victorian ideal of womanhood. Laura is innoccnt a11d l~app!, :IS long as she remains ~vithinthe confines of domesticity, atvay ffroln ten-~ptationsof tl~c , outside world, particularly teinptatio~lsrelated to female desire. Accepting thc repressive norins of society, she may ensure for herself a trouble-fkce csistence. However, tvhen she breaks thc.social taboo, she has to suffer. Lizzie. lvho admonishes her froin time to time, acts as tlie moral voicc of her timcs. rcpcntlng rllc socially correct nlessase. P

Some critics, referring to the poet's persoiial life and hcr rejection of lnen ancl marriage, read the poem as an eqression of Christina Rossetti's u~ldcrlyngfc:lr of sexuality, The goblins, in their evil, distorted guise, represent tlie latent fear of lnen that Christina Rossetti probably lived with. This niay be rclated to the fact that therc are no other ilornlal mcn in the narrative. .Eve11bvhcn. in the frilal stanza. "G M" tel Is of Laura and Lizzie in their maturer years, neithcr their h~sbandsnor their sons arc mentioned. They are shown only in the company of tllcir daughters and ti12 closc bonding betwee11,them is stressed. The coilcluding lincs arc: 'For there's no friend likc a sister 111kalk or sternly wcathcr: To cheer one 011 tlic tcdious nay. To fetch one if one goes astraj., To lift one if one totters down, To strengthen wl~ilstone stands.'

I 'I-hcse lines further strengthen the theme that sisterhood is powerfill and make "GM" I an unmistakably fenlinist poem. No wonder, therefore, that fen~inistcritics ? , discovered muoh to be iauded in the poem. The two sistcrs of the poem, it has been argued, may be taken to represent two sides of the poct: one stem, self-denying and ascetic, the other sensuous, hedonistic, and self-indulgenL. Lizzie represents the society \vitl~its repressive norms while Laura is thc rebel, qi~cstioningcvld tra~lsgressingthose norms. 111 lceeping with the Victorian ideolog!~. Laura suffers because she breaks the nllcs. She pays a heavy price for not observing the nloral code. And when shc regai~~slifc and vitality through her sistet by symbolically "eating" her, she is in a way ingesting the moral code, reconcili~lgto and accepting the social norills she had earlier transgressed. Consequently, she can be happy once more.

Lilcc the jvolilcn portrayed by the other Pre-Raphaelite poets, "GM" also gives us a 1)icturc 0f.a woman who is weak and wlnerable. Laura, as she wilts away. is vcry close to tlle kind of wolllen inlmortalized on the canvas by Kossetei and his folIowers. Christina Rossetti was far too conditioned by her social n~ilieiinot to be influenced b! the stereotype. And yet, being an intelligent, thinking, person, she co~lldnot rest uith merely the conventiollal portrait of a woman. So her protagonist is given other traits: a questioning nlind (like her creator's), a spirit of adventure, and the courage to face the consequences of rebellion. Similarly, Laura, even ti~rougl~slle represents the

' patriarchal order, is presented as an individual that one may not break: for il~st~u~ce \~.l~cnshe stands firin as a rock facing the onsla~~ghtsof thc goblins. Contrasted with thc evil role played by the (male) goblins, she takes on'a positive, nurturing role as shc risks her oivn life to save her sister and nurse her back to healtll once more. For this reason "GM" rema.ins a strong, woman-centered poem.

Thc pocnl may be conlpared to Keats' "La Belle Dame Sans Merci" where a loitering knight encounters a bcautifill woluan and succunlbs to her channs. The tvoman bctraja him and hc is doo~lledto pine forevcr more. Whereas Keats portrays ajknzrne firll~le(a deadly woman), Christina Rossetti in "GM" porlrays le.s ho~nmc..fi~tc//u.~ (dnngcrous men) in the horrendous band of goblins. She is collccmed with Iio\.cr IIICI~ lllanagc to scduce wonlei1 and then discard them oncc their object is fulfilled. According to tllc patriarcllal Victorian ideology, wolnell are attractive as long as they arc virginal, but ollcc "fallen," they are of no use and lose their chaml. These arc rules laid down by nlen (goblins in the poem) who are tl~cIa~vmakcrs. . .

Thc parallel between the collsulnptioil ~f the fruit and the loss of chastity, thus, is obvious tllrougll the poem. And yet the-thenze is subtly dealt with, in keeping with tllc Victorian taboo of fenlalc sexuality. Christina Rossetli, even though she tackles a bold tlieme,-does not openly flout conveiltion. She vcils her point so successfi~lly througll this allegorj*that "GM" is often nlistslken f~rchildren's literature.

Makc a list of the animals mentioned in the poenl and note how they arc all connected with the goblins. Try and assess the sylnbolic value of the aniinal imagery. - Victorian Pmy 2. Do you think the goblins of "GM" represent the male world? If so. is thc poem an attack on patriarchy? Illustrate your answer with the help of the appearance, habitat, and profession of the goblins. [Note that they inhabit a glen --- a shady, mysterious place --9 and only emerge in the dark, aftcr sundown. Also take into account that theirs is a forbidden world illto which , maidens may stray only at the risk of their lives. Besides, they are merchants engaged in selling fruit that is not normal or seasonal, but enchanted. which has a disastrous effect on anyone (any girl) who eats it. This fruit is given not at an honest price, but for a lock of hair (to Laura) or forcibly thnist (so attempted in Lizzie's case), The girls are either helplessly caught in the ganle .the goblins play or else they, like Lizzie, must remain strong and ward them I off.]

.3. Highlight the connection between po'etry and pslintiilg ill "Goblin Market." ' [Compare the images and colours Christina Rossetti uses for the gobliils with those used for the two sisters. Note how, like Dante Gabriel, slle uses words the way an artist would use paints.]

-.40.6 LET'S SUM UP

In this unit you have been told about the Pre-Raphaelite Movement, how it originated and made a mark on the literary and artistic scene. Dmte Gabriel Rossetti and his sister Christina Rossetti, two of the main proponents of the n~ove~l~eilthave been discussed in detail. You should now be able to write about the movemellt and also about the works of these two poets,

40.7 SUGGESTED READING

Critical analyses of her writing include Dolores Rosenblunl, Chri,stinn Rossetri: The Poetvy of ~ndtrrmce'(1 986); David A. Kent (ed,), The Achievement of C7hris,lnn Rossetti (1987), a collection of essays; Antony H.Harrison, Christina Rosvetli in Context (1988); and Katherine J, Mayberry, Christina Rossetli and the IJoefrjlof' ~iscover~'.(1989),Edna Kotin Charles, Christina Rossetti: Criticdl Perspectives. 1862-1982*(1985),surveys critical responses to her poetry over 120 years. Sandra Giblert and Susan Gubar have made a detailed study of "Goblin Market" in T/ic Madwoman in the Attic (1979).

40.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY ---

Evelyn Waugh, Rossetti: His Lije and Works (1928, reprinted 1978). gave an unsympathetic view of him; it was followed by the overt hostility of Violet Hunt. The Wve of Rossetti (1932). Against this prejudice the daughter of W.M Rossetti came to ller uncle's defense: Helen Rossetti Angeli, Dante Gabriel Rossetti: His The PI-e-Rnl)hi~etitcs 1;i.iends cind Enemies (1949, reprinted 1977). The Pre-Raphaelite Poets by Lionel Stevenson (1 972) speaks of the moveinent and the main artist-poets.

Assessments of Rossetti's acl~ievementsare found in Florence Saunders Boos, The Poetry of Dnnte G. Rossetti: A Critical Reading nndSoztrce Study (1976); Joan Rees, The Poetry qf'Dnnte Gabriel Rossetti: Modes of SclJ:Expression(198 1); David G. Riede. Dante Gnbrlel Rossetti and the Limits of Victorian Vision (1983); and David . G. Riede (ed.). Critical Essaj).s on Donte Gabriel Rossetti (1992), wl~ichincludes several contemporarq responses to his poetry as well as more modem critiques.