iv Brief Table of Contents

PREFACE ...... xv

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ...... xxiv

Chapter 1: Introducing Social Psychology ...... 2

Chapter 2: Conducting Research in Social Psychology ...... 36

Chapter 3: The Self ...... 66

Chapter 4: Social Cognition and Person Perception ...... 104

Chapter 5: Attitudes and Persuasion ...... 148

Chapter 6: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination ... 198

Chapter 7: Social Infl uence ...... 252

Chapter 8: Group Behavior ...... 302

Chapter 9: ...... 352

Chapter 10: Intimate Relationships ...... 390 Brief Table of Contents

Chapter 11: Aggression ...... 438

Chapter 12: Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others ...... 484

APPENDIX ...... 531

GLOSSARY ...... 547

REFERENCES ...... 559

NAME INDEX ...... 647

SUBJECT INDEX ...... 659 Table of Contents v Table of Contents of Table PREFACE ...... xv

ABOUT THE AUTHORS ...... xxiv

Chapter 1 Introducing Social Psychology 2 1.1 What Is Social Psychology? ...... 4 1.1a Social Psychologists Study How We Are Infl uenced by Others...... 4 1.1b Social Psychology Is More Than Common Sense...... 5 1.1c Social Psychologists Study How Social Reality Is Created (and Recreated)...... 6 1.1d Social Psychology Is Studied in Both Psychology and Sociology. ..10 1.1e Social Psychology Is a Fairly Young Science...... 10 1.2 Organizing Concepts and Perspectives in Social Psychology ...... 16 1.2a The Self Is Shaped by—and Shapes—the Social Environment...... 16 1.2b Our Social Thinking Can Be Automatic or Deliberate...... 18 1.2c Culture Shapes Social Behavior...... 20 Self/Social connection exerciSe 1.1: To What Degree Do You Value Individualist and Collectivist Strivings? ...... 24 1.2d Evolution Shapes Universal Patterns of Social Behavior...... 25 1.2e Brain Activity Affects and Is Affected by Social Behavior...... 28 1.2f Positive Psychology Is an Emerging Perspective in Social Psychology...... 30 KEY TERMS ...... 34 WEBSITES ...... 34

Chapter 2 Conducting Research in Social Psychology 36 2.1 The Goals and Process of Research ...... 39 2.1a Two Research Goals Focus on Acquiring and Applying Knowledge. ..39 2.1b The Research Process Involves a Series of Steps...... 40 Self/Social connection exerciSe 2.1: How Is Self-Esteem Measured Using a Self-Report? ...... 45

2.2 Common Scientifi c Methods ...... 47 2.2a Description Is the Goal of Observational Research...... 47 2.2b Correlational Research Involves Assessing the Relationship Between Variables...... 51 2.2c Experimental Research Can Determine Cause-Effect Relationships...... 55 2.3 Standards and Procedures That Bolster Scientifi c Conclusions .....59 2.3a Replication and Meta-Analysis Are Essential in Building a Scientifi cally Based Body of Knowledge...... 59 vi Table of Contents

2.3b The Scientific Method Is Self-Correcting...... 60 2.3c The Study of Actual Behavior Is Declining in Social Psychology.....62 KEY TERMS...... 64 WEBSITES...... 65

Chapter 3 The Self 66 3.1 The Self as Both Active Agent and Object of Attention...... 69 3.1a James and Mead Shaped Contemporary Self Theories...... 69 3.1b Self-Awareness Is Reflective Thinking...... 70 Self/Social Connection Exercise 3.1: What Are Your Levels of Private and Public Self-Consciousness?...... 73 3.1c Self-Regulation Is the Self’s Most Important Function...... 76 3.2 The Self as a Social Construction...... 79 Self/Social Connection Exercise 3.2: Who Are You?...... 80 3.2a Cultural Beliefs About Self-Group Relationships Shape Self-Concept...... 81 3.2b Gender Beliefs Shape Self-Concept...... 85 3.2c Social Identities Establish “What” and “Where” We Are as Social Beings...... 86 3.3 Presenting the Self to Others...... 88 3.3a Self-Presentations Are Either Consciously or Automatically Constructed...... 88 3.3b Self-Presentation Strategies Differ in Their Goals...... 90 3.4 Evaluating the Self...... 94 3.4a The Tendency to Self-Enhance Bolsters Self-Esteem and Promotes Health...... 94 3.4b There Is a Dark Side to High Self-Esteem...... 95 Applications: Do You Engage in Binge Drinking or Eating to Escape from Yourself?...... 99

The Big Picture...... 101 KEY TERMS...... 101 WEBSITES...... 102

Chapter 4 Social Cognition and Person Perception 4 10 4.1 How Does Automatic Thinking Help Us Make Sense of Social Information?...... 107 4.1a We Are Categorizing Creatures...... 107 4.1b Schemas What Information We Notice and Later Remember...... 109 4.1c Schemas Can Be Situationally or Chronically Activated...... 111 4.1d Heuristics Are Time-saving Mental Shortcuts...... 113 Table of Contents vii

4.2 How Does Deliberate Thinking Help Us Make Sense of Past Events?...... 117 4.2a The Hindsight Bias Is Fueled by Our for Sensemaking...... 118 4.2b Counterfactual Thinking Often Follows Negative and Unexpected Events...... 119 4.3 How Do We Form Impressions of Others?...... 121 4.3a The Nonverbal Behaviors of Others Shape Our Impressions of Them...... 121 Self/Social Connection Exercise 4.1: What Are a Few Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Behavior?...... 124 4.3b Culture and Gender Influence the Expression of Nonverbal Cues.... 126 4.3c Most of Us Are Poor Deception Detectors...... 128 4.3d We Develop Implicit Personality Theories Based on Central Traits... 130 4.3e We Often Seek Information to Confirm Our First Impressions..... 132 4.4 How Do We Construct Causal Explanations for Events?...... 133 4.4a We Rely Upon Particular Information When Explaining People’s Actions...... 133 4.4b The Covariation Model Explains Attributions Based on Three Types of Information...... 134 4.4c There Are Biases in the Attribution Process...... 136 4.4d Making Attributions Involves Both Automatic and Deliberate Thinking...... 140 Applications: How Do You Explain Negative Events in Your Life?...... 142

Self/Social Connection Exercise 4.2: Do You Have a Pessimistic or an Optimistic Explanatory Style?...... 143

The Big Picture...... 145 KEY TERMS...... 146 WEBSITES...... 146

Chapter 5 Attitudes and Persuasion 8 14 5.1 The Nature of Attitudes...... 151 5.1a Attitudes Are Positive or Negative Evaluations of Objects...... 151 5.1b Implicit Attitudes May Underlie Explicit Attitudes...... 152 5.1c Reference Groups Shape Attitudes...... 153 5.2 How Does Automatic Thinking Shape Attitudes and Behavior?.5... 15 5.2a Mere Exposure Can Lead to Positive Attitudes...... 155 5.2b Attitudes Can Form Through Classical Conditioning...... 157 5.2c Reinforcement and Punishment Can Shape Attitudes...... 159 5.2d Nonverbal Behavior Can Shape Attitudes...... 159 5.3 How Does Deliberate Thinking Shape Attitudes and Behavior?.2.... 16 5.3a Self-Justification Can Shape Attitudes...... 162 5.3b Cognitive Consistency Is Not a Universal Motive...... 169 viii Table of Contents

Self/Social Connection Exercise 5.1: The Preference for Consistency Scale...... 170 5.3c Self-Perception Theory Contends That Behavior Causes Attitudes...... 171 5.3d The Theory of Planned Behavior Explains “Thought-Through” Actions...... 173 5.4 The Nature of Persuasion...... 176 5.4a Persuasion Can Occur Through Both Effortful and Effortless Thinking...... 176 Self/Social Connection Exercise 5.2: To What Degree Do You Have a Need for Cognition?...... 178 5.4b Persuader Credibility and Attractiveness Can Affect Persuasion...... 179 5.4c Rapid Speech Discourages Central-Route Processing...... 182 5.4d Can Motivate, Enhance, or Hinder Persuasion...... 183 5.4e Two-Sided Messages Inoculate Audiences Against Opposing Views...... 186 5.4f Resisting Strong Arguments Creates Greater Attitude Certainty.. 187 Applications: Are Mass Media Campaigns Effective in Changing Risky Health Behaviors?...... 192

The Big Picture...... 195 KEY TERMS...... 195 WEBSITES...... 196

Chapter 6 Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Discrimination 8 19 6.1 What Are the Components of Intergroup Conflict?...... 202 6.1a Stereotypes Are Beliefs About Social Groups...... 202 6.1b Prejudice Is an Attitude and Discrimination Is an Action...... 206 6.1c There Are Three Basic Forms of Prejudice...... 209 6.2 Who Are Common Targets of Intolerance?...... 210 6.2a Race-Based Appearance Cues Can Trigger Discrimination...... 211 6.2b Modern Racism Is More Subtle than Openly Hostile...... 214 6.2c Sexism Has Both a Hostile and a Benevolent Component...... 216 Self/Social Connection Exercise 6.1: What Is Your Degree of Ambivalent Sexism Toward Women?...... 218 6.2d Intolerance Based on Weight, Sexual Orientation, and Mental Illness Is Often Accepted...... 219 6.2e Being Stigmatized Has Negative Consequences for the Targets...... 224 6.3 What Shapes Prejudice and Discrimination?...... 227 6.3a Ingroup Members Are Favored Over Outgroup Members...... 227 6.3b Intergroup Competition Can Lead to Prejudice...... 230 6.3c Prejudice Can Serve as a Justification for Oppression...... 234 6.3d Authoritarianism Is Associated with Toward Outgroups.... 237 Table of Contents ix

6.4 Can We Reduce Intergroup Bias and Intolerance?...... 239 6.4a Prejudice and Discrimination Can Be Reduced by Monitoring Stereotyped Thinking...... 239 6.4b People Can Become Agents of Positive Social Change...... 241 6.4c The Contact Hypothesis Identifies Social Conditions That Reduce Intergroup Conflict...... 242 Applications: How Can Our Schools Be Positive Institutions of Social Change?.. 247

The Big Picture...... 249 KEY TERMS...... 250 WEBSITES...... 250

Chapter 7 Social Influence 2 25 7.1 What Is Social Influence?...... 255 7.1a Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience Are Different Types of Social Influence...... 255 7.1b People with Social Power Are More Likely to Initiate Action...... 256 7.2 Classic and Contemporary Conformity Research...... 258 7.2a Sherif Analyzed Conformity to an Ambiguous Reality...... 258 7.2b Social Norms Are Often Automatically Activated...... 261 7.2c Asch Analyzed Conformity to a Unanimous Majority...... 262 7.2d Normative and Informational Influence Shape Conformity...... 265 Self/Social Connection Exercise 7.1: What’s Up?...... 266 7.2e Schachter Investigated the Rejection of the Nonconformist...... 267 7.3 What Factors Influence Conformity?...... 269 7.3a Situational Factors Impact Conformity...... 269 7.3b Personal Factors Influence Conformity...... 271 7.3c Cultures Differ in Their Conformity Patterns...... 273 7.3d The Minority Can Influence the Majority...... 274 7.4 Compliance...... 278 7.4a Manipulating Moods and Invoking Norms Foster Compliance..... 278 7.4b Two-Step Strategies Are Effective Compliance Traps...... 280 7.4c Intense Social Influence Can Lead to Unusual Compliance...... 284 7.5 Obedience...... 287 7.5a Milgram Discovered That Destructive Obedience Is Common..... 287 7.5b Recent Studies Partially Replicated Milgram’s Original Findings...... 291 7.5c Observing Others Defying Authority Greatly Reduces Obedience... 293 7.6 Toward a Unified Understanding of Social Influence...... 294 7.6a Social Impact Theory Explains Influence Strength...... 295 Applications: How Can the Internet Influence Voting Behavior?...... 298 The Big Picture...... 300 KEY TERMS...... 301 WEBSITES...... 301 x Table of Contents

Chapter 8 Group Behavior 302 8.1 The Nature of Groups...... 304 8.1a Groups Accomplish Instrumental Tasks and Satisfy Socioemotional Needs...... 305 8.1b There Are Five Phases to Group Membership...... 305 8.1c Group Structure Develops Quickly and Changes Slowly...... 307 8.1d Group Success Fosters Social Identification...... 309 8.1e Groups Differ in Their Social Cohesiveness...... 310 8.2 Group Influence on Individual Behavior...... 315 8.2a The Presence of Others Can Energize Us...... 315 8.2b The Presence of Others Can Hide Us...... 318 8.2c Being Both Energized and Hidden Can Lower Our Inhibitions...... 321 8.3 Decision-making in Groups...... 325 8.3a Group Decision-making Occurs in Stages and Follows Various Rules...... 325 8.3b Group Discussion Enhances Majority Opinions...... 328 8.3c Consensus Seeking Overrides Critical Analysis in Groupthink..... 331 8.4 Leadership...... 334 8.4a A Leader Is an Influence Agent...... 334 8.4b The Contingency Model Is an Interactionist View of Leadership...... 335 Self/Social Connection Exercise 8.1: Who Is Your Least Preferred Coworker?...... 336 8.4c During Troubled Times, Transformational and Authoritarian Leaders Often Emerge...... 338 8.4d Gender and Culture Can Influence Leadership Style...... 340

8.5 Group Interests Versus Individual Interests...... 342 8.5a Social Dilemmas Occur When Short-term and Long-term Interests Conflict...... 342 8.5b Cooperation Is Necessary to Resolve Social Dilemmas...... 345 Applications: How Do Juries Make Decisions?...... 348 The Big Picture...... 350 KEY TERMS...... 351 WEBSITES...... 351

Chapter 9 Interpersonal Attraction 352 9.1 Needs...... 355 9.1a Two Reasons for Affiliation Are Comparison and Exchange...... 355 9.1b Our Evolutionary Heritage and Biology Influence Our Belongingness Needs...... 356 9.1c Socialization Shapes Our Belongingness Needs...... 358 Table of Contents xi

Self/Social Connection Exercise 9.1: How Important Are Your Close Relationships in Defining You?...... 359

9.2 Characteristics of the Situation and Attraction...... 361 9.2a Close Proximity Fosters Liking...... 361 9.2b Our Affiliation Increase with ...... 362

9.3 Characteristics of Others and Attraction...... 366 9.3a We Are Drawn Toward the Physically Attractive...... 366 9.3b There Are Gender-Based Attractiveness Standards...... 368 9.3c Gender-Based Attractiveness Standards Shape Body Esteem..... 372 Self/Social Connection Exercise 9.2: What Is Your Level of Body Esteem?... 374 9.3d Social Comparison Influences Attractiveness Judgments...... 375 9.3e Birds of a Feather Really Do Flock Together...... 376 9.3f We Like Those Who Like Us...... 378

9.4 When Social Interaction Becomes Problematic...... 379 9.4a Social Anxiety Can Keep Us Isolated from Others...... 380 9.4b Is the Consequence of Social ...... 381 Applications: How Can Social Skills Training Improve Your Life?...... 386 The Big Picture...... 388 KEY TERMS...... 388 WEBSITES...... 389

Chapter 10 Intimate Relationships 0 39 10.1 What Is Intimacy?...... 393 10.1a Intimacy Involves Including Another in Your Self-Concept...... 393 10.1b Intimacy Involves Treating Your Loved Ones’ Needs as Your Own... 394 10.2 Parent-Child Attachment and Later Adult Relationships...... 395 10.2a Attachment Is an Inborn, Adaptive Response...... 396 10.2b Attachment Styles Influence Romantic Relationships...... 397 Self/Social Connection Exercise 10.1: What Is Your Adult Attachment Style?...... 399

10.3 ...... 401 10.3a Self-Disclosure Shapes Friendship Development and Maintenance...... 402 10.3b Gender Differences Exist in Heterosexual ...... 404 Self/Social Connection Exercise 10.2: Do You Self-Disclose Differently to Your Male and Female Friends?...... 406 10.3c Cross-Sex Friendships Are a Valuable Source of Support...... 408 10.3d Friends-with-Benefits Relationships Pose Unique Challenges and Dangers...... 408 10.3e Gender Differences Disappear in Same-Sex Gay and Lesbian Friendships...... 409 xii Table of Contents

10.4 Romantic Relationships...... 410 10.4a Culture Shapes How We Think About Romantic ...... 411 10.4b Online Romance Follows Similar Rules to Face-to-Face Romance...... 414 10.4c Passionate Love Can Be Triggered by Excitation Transfer...... 415 Self/Social Connection Exercise 10.3: To What Degree Do You Experience Passionate Love for Someone?...... 415 10.4d Companionate Love Is More Stable and Enduring Than Passionate Love...... 419 10.4e Women and Men May Differ in Their Experience of Love...... 421 10.5 Will Love Endure?...... 423 10.5a Social Disapproval of One’s Partner Harms Relationship Stability.... 424 10.5b People Are Happiest with Romantic Equity...... 425 10.5c Self-Esteem Can Both Facilitate and Undermine Romantic Love...... 425 10.5d Romantic Is Based on Both Positive Illusions and Accurate Judgments...... 427 10.5e Being Playful and Expressing Fosters Relationship Satisfaction...... 428 10.5f People Use Different Strategies to Cope with a Troubled Relationship...... 429 10.5g Romantic Breakups Often Cause Emotional Distress...... 431 Applications: What Causes , and How Can You Cope with It?...... 433

The Big Picture...... 436 KEY TERMS...... 437 WEBSITES...... 437

Chapter 11 Aggression 438 11.1 What Is Aggression?...... 440 11.1a Aggression Is Intentional Harm...... 441 11.1b Instrumental and Hostile Aggression Have Different Goals...... 441 11.1c Gender and Personality Moderate the Expression of Aggression..... 443 11.1d Intergroup Aggression Is Often More Extreme Than Interpersonal Aggression...... 446 11.2 The Biology of Aggression...... 448 11.2a Evolution Shaped Our Aggressive Behavior Patterns...... 448 11.2b Biological Factors Influence Aggressive Behavior...... 450 11.3 Aggression as a Reaction to Negative Affect...... 453 11.3a The -Aggression Hypothesis Asserts That Frustration Triggers Aggression...... 453 11.3b Unpleasant Situations Can Activate Aggressive Thoughts and Associations...... 455 11.3c Alcohol Consumption Increases the Likelihood of Aggression..... 460 Table of Contents xiii

11.4 Learning Aggressive Behavior...... 461 11.4a Social Learning Theory Emphasizes the Shaping of Aggressive Behavior...... 461 11.4b Media and Video Violence Foster Aggressive Behavior...... 464 11.4c Cultures of Honor Encourage Male Violence...... 468 11.5 Sexual Aggression...... 470 11.5a Rape Myths Justify Sexual Violence...... 470 Self/Social Connection Exercise 11.1: What Are Your Beliefs About Rape and Interpersonal Violence?...... 471 11.5b Rape Is a Display of Power and Dominance...... 475 11.6 Reducing Aggression...... 476 11.6a Punishment Can Both Decrease and Increase Aggression...... 476 11.6b Teaching Others How to Behave in a Nonaggressive Manner...... 477 Applications: How Can Cyberbullying Be Prevented?...... 480

The Big Picture...... 482 KEY TERMS...... 483 WEBSITES...... 483

Chapter 12 Prosocial Behavior: Helping Others 484 12.1 Why Do We Help?...... 487 12.1a There Are Two Basic Forms of Helping...... 487 Self/Social Connection Exercise 12.1: Is Your Helping Orientation Altruistic, Egoistic, or Unhelpful?...... 488 12.1b Helping Is Consistent with Evolutionary Theory...... 489 12.1c Social Norms Define the Rules of Helping Others...... 491 12.1d Political and Social Class Differences Shape Willingness to Help..... 492 12.1e Individualists and Collectivists Differ in Their Helping Tendencies... 493 12.1f Gender and Personality Influence Helping Responses...... 495 Self/Social Connection Exercise 12.2: What Is Your Degree of Empathic Concern and Personal Distress?...... 496 12.1g Learning to Be a Helper Involves Both Observation and Direct Reinforcement...... 498 12.1h Being Helpful Can Benefit Personal Well-Being...... 501 12.2 When Do We Help?...... 502 12.2a Bystander Intervention Involves a Series of Decisions...... 503 12.2b Outcome and Information Dependence Produce the Audience Inhibition Effect...... 506 12.2c Diffusion of Responsibility Increases with the Number of Bystanders...... 508 12.2d Bystander Intervention Is Shaped by and Cost-Reward Assessments...... 511 xiv Table of Contents

12.2e Positive and Negative Moods Can Either Increase or Decrease Helping...... 514 12.2f The -Altruism Hypothesis Contends That Empathy Produces Altruistic Motivation...... 517 12.3 Whom Do We Help?...... 520 12.3a We Tend to Help Similar Others...... 520 12.3b We Help Deserving Others, but We Also Blame Victims...... 522 12.4 Are There Hidden Costs for Help Recipients?...... 523 12.4a Being Unable to Reciprocate Help Can Create ...... 523 12.4b Receiving Help Can Threaten Self-Esteem...... 524 Applications: Can Social Psychological Knowledge Enhance Prosocial Behavior?...... 527

The Big Picture...... 528 KEY TERMS...... 529 WEBSITES...... 529

Appendix: Possible Answers for the Critical Thinking Exercises...... 531

Glossary...... 547

References...... 559

Name Index...... 647

Subject Index...... 659