Archaeological Society Arch Notes

New Series Volume 12, Issue 5 ISSN 0048–1742 September/October 2007

An excavation going on under the boardwalk in Quebec City reveals foundations of waterfront buildings (see page 10). photo by Henry Van Lieshout

OAS News Articles 3 President’s message 11 Thoughts on Genoa Frilled, by Jeff Bursey

5 Charlie Nixon, 1917-2007 17 Pukaskwa Pits: Rethinking the vision quest hypothesis, by Nancy Champagne 8 Letters

10 Quebec City trip 2008

22 OAS chapter listings

Visit us on the Web at www.ontarioarchaeology.on.ca Ontario Archaeological Society

Board of Directors Appointments & Committees President Editor, Ontario Archaeology Jean-Luc Pilon Andrew Stewart [email protected] [email protected] Director of Finance/Treasurer Editorial Board: Ron Williamson, Susan Jamieson, John Pollock, Mima Kapches, Eva McDonald, Alicia Henry van Lieshout Hawkins (416) 446-7673 [email protected] Editor, Arch Notes Director of Chapter/Professional Andy Schoenhofer, [email protected] Services Editor, Website Jim Keron Jean-Luc Pilon (519) 285-2379 Advocacy Task Force [email protected] Chair: Carole Stimmell Director of Heritage Advocacy Archaeology Day Committee Carole Stimmell Chair: Carole Stimmell (416) 698-1164 Ext. 23 (w) Christine Caroppo, Cathy Crinnion [email protected] Awards Committee Director of Membership Services Chair: Jean-Luc Pilon Alistair Jolly [email protected] Board Review Committee Director of Outreach & Education Alicia Hawkins, Jean-Luc Pilon Services Education Committee Vacant Chair: Cathy Crinnion Director of Student Services Christine Caroppo, Carole Stimmell John L. Creese First Nations Liaison Committee [email protected] Chair: Holly Martelle (OAS, TMHC) Director of Publications Gary Warrick (WLU), Brandy George (TMHC), Merv Sarazin (Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn), Alicia Hawkins Jean-Luc Pilon (OAS, Museum of Civilization) (705) 675-1151 ext. 4224 [email protected] Nominating Committee Executive Director Chair: TBA Lise Ferguson Professional Committee 1444 Queen Street East, Suite 102 Chair: Alicia Hawkins Toronto, ON M4L 1E1 Cathy Crinnion, Holly Martelle, Jean-Luc Pilon, Phone/fax: (416) 406-5959 Paul Racher, Andrew Murray [email protected] Symposium 2007 Kingston Board meeting dates in 2007 Chair: Alan MacLachlan January 6 Volunteer Recognition Task Force April 14 July 14 Chair: Jean-Luc Pilon; Members: Carole Stimmell, September 29 Cathy Crinnion 3

President’s message Jean-Luc Pilon Of course, the topic is not new, but (section 66(1), Ontario Heritage Soon, the annual OAS Symposium these two instances make it clear Act). I think that many small in Kingston will be at hand. I hope that just because it is not a hot museums, while well-intentioned that you have already made plans topic of discussion, it remains one at first, did not foresee how long to attend this meeting which is of the more serious threats to our perpetual care of these collections being organized for us by the discipline that is rapidly creeping might really be. I suspect that many Cataraqui Archaeological Research up on us. more small institutions across the Foundation. The sessions and The first case involves a small province are also suffering under papers sound like they will offer eastern Ontario museum which the burden of these collections good food for many thoughts. requested information from me which usually only include a few You couldn’t ask for a better set- regarding the mechanisms for exhibit-quality pieces. ting with the meeting being held in repatriating an archaeological col- Similarly, consulting archaeolo- Kingston’s historic downtown lection they have been storing gists must also be starting to feel located on the edge of Lake since the late 1970s. It turns out the pinch of acting as repositories Ontario, within earshot of the that at that time, they had had an for the extensive collections they remains of Fort Frontenac whose archaeological excavation around continue to gather and store for the founder, Louis de Buade, comte de the foundation and in the base- people of Ontario. Surely their Frontenac, is so well known for ment of the building which houses accountants will soon be, if they having returned envoys back to the their museum. haven’t already, instructing them to British Admiral Phipps who had I can only imagine the great find alternate arrangements for demanded the surrender of local interest in such a project. It their financial well-being. And Québec City with the message that was probably the first time an what will happen to collections if, he would answer their admiral “by “archaeological dig” had ever taken or more correctly, when some con- the mouths of his cannon.” place in their community. sulting firms cease operations? When first established, Fort However, the excavations generat- Where will these collections go? Frontenac was on the frontier of ed more than 70 bankers boxes of What kind of access currently New France but history would artifacts; XIXth/XXth century exists to these collections even if eventually roll over it like a wave pieces. They now want the space somehow we know where the and it would become a bastion of back. They don’t use much of the materials are housed? These are all the British Empire and eventually collection. Who could they send critical questions with regards to the capital city of a fledgling them to? Well, when informed that saving the past for the future. It colony.Today,Kingston is a vibrant repatriation meant sending them may be long past time for the community in eastern Ontario back to their point of archaeologi- Minister to take a more active role which has preserved much of its cal origin, they realized they were at this level if the past is to have a historic past while continuing to on the hook. Could they simply future at all. provide with important rebury them, they wondered? new military and academic leader- !#@*/! The second element that I allud- ship. So what does it mean when a ed to above involves the piece of legislation says that “The Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn. This Recently, two events have graph- Minister may direct that any arti- summer I received a letter from ically reminded me of a looming fact taken under the authority of a Kirby Whiteduck, the Chief of the crisis in Ontario archaeology. This license or a permit be deposited in Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn, revolves around the long-term such public institution as the requesting that the OAS place the management of archaeological col- Minister may determine, to be held establishment of better relations lections in the province of Ontario. in trust for the people of Ontario” with First Nations higher up on

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 4

our list of principles (it currently is upgrade this facility. If there is a If the ultimate responsibility for the 8th one) to which our members crisis looming, they are offering a the safekeeping of archaeological adhere, as published in our potential solution. collections is a ministerial prerog- “Statement of Ethical Principles” I am certain that the question of ative, then it should be exercised (please read Kirby’s letter to the archaeological repositories is a lot sooner, rather than later. That Board of Directors on page 8). more complex than I realize (and I there will be significant costs asso- While I do not believe our list is can already hear the Ministry of ciated with the creation, mainte- structured from most important to Culture staff who would gladly nance and staffing of such region- least, I wholeheartedly agree that a outline this complexity for me!). al repositories goes without say- place must be made within the These two situations (1. small ing. One certainty is that the archaeological licensing system in museums that lose interest, run out longer it takes to begin to properly Ontario to include First Nations of space or cease to exist, and 2. a address the situation, the greater who wish to participate in a more First Nation that is eager and will- will be the price, not only in terms meaningful way. What might that ing to participate in the archaeo- of eventual tax dollars, but to the be? It could involve some kind of logical process), and of course the credibility of the practice of real consultative process, overseen mere fact that hundreds of site col- archaeology in Ontario and the by the ministry. lections are created every year by very survival of these mute wit- Another very important func- consultants, point in a direction nesses of times past that we claim tion has been suggested by Kirby that must be explored: the creation to be of such great value and sig- Whiteduck. The Algonquins of of regional repositories for archae- nificance to our collective sense of Pikwàkanagàn already have a ological collections, or at the very place and being. Temporary Archaeological least, a collections management Repository for collections from strategy for the province of their traditional lands. They aim to Ontario.

Congratulations to 25–year members

The Society wishes to congratulate the following members on their 25th anniversary of joining the OAS:

James Molnar Gatineau, Quebec Marian Clarke Perth, Ontario Maggia McFadzen Guelph, Ontario J.D. Morton Oshawa, Ontario Tom Arnold London, Ontario Carol Lang Toronto, Ontario John Peters and Ann Balmer Toronto, Ontario June Husband Toronto, Ontario Jane Sacchetti Toronto, Ontario Marta Bradbury Haliburton, Ontario Robin Smith Oakville, Ontario M. Primeau and R. Denunzio Windsor, Ontario Gordon Grosscup Detroit, Michigan

No members will celebrate their 50th anniversary this year.

If any member believes that he or she has also been a member for 25 or 50 years, and is not on this list, please contact the Treasurer at [email protected] or call 416-446-7673.

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 5 Charlie Nixon 1917–2007

By Jim Keron, by far the most entertaining since almost no one had OAS Board of Directors and former London seen one in the flesh, let alone tried to use it. That year Chapter President the picnic was at my house in Thamesford back on It is with a great deal of sadness that we mark the the river flood plain and for a target we set up a rather passing of the first president of the London Chapter large cardboard box. For the first while being inside of the OAS. Charlie joined the OAS in 1968 (Kewa the box would have been the safest place to be as the 1977-3:2) and was one of the Charter members of the darts were flying everywhere. I still recall being the London Chapter when it was formed 30 years ago in first one to hit the box but the shot was disallowed as 1977. the dart had flipped end over end and the butt end is I first met Charlie in 1977 at either the founding of what made contact. Another time Stew Leslie man- the London Chapter or the inaugural meeting of the aged to get the timing correct and we watched the Archaeological Conservation Officer (ACO) pro- dart sail over the fence and trees and into the next, gram. At this point in time, I am not sure which since fortunately unoccupied, yard. The only real downside it was the same time to the atlatl games and many of the par- was that in the ticipants were the excitement of hunt- same. Charlie regu- ing cardboard boxes larly commuted in the fire keeper forgot from Ayr to London to keep the fire and it for both these organ- went out significant- izations. When the ly delaying the roast initial London pig. I subsequently Chapter executive made several atlatls was formed later that copying Charlie’s year, Charlie was model, although I elected as the first cheated by using a president and served piece of dowel for for two years. In this the dart where role he contributed Charlie had taken to the strong start of his directly from the the London Chapter woods and manufac- and helped set the tured it without the tone for the momen- use of steel tools. tum that has contin- One of those atlatl’s ued to this day. still makes its way to Always a keen the London Chapter inquisitive mind, Charlie with wheelbarrow at the Calvert site. picnics and thus Charlie was inspired Photo courtesy London Chapter Charlie’s influence is by reading Theodore still evident. Some of Kroeber’s book, Ishi, to a more in-depth understand- Charlie’s handiwork was proudly displayed in the old ing of methods of manufacture and use of early tech- Ministry office at 55 Centre Street for quite a few nology. He published a short Kewa article in 1979 and years. Another of Charlie’s feats was starting a fire brought along many of his wares to the early London using a bow and drill. This also was demonstrated at chapter picnics. For several years there was an annu- several of the early picnics. al atlatl throwing contest, although the first year was Charlie conducted regular survey in Oxford and

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 6

Charlie, Kay and Ed backfilling Midden 1 at the Harrietsville site. Photo courtesy London Chapter Brant counties locating, registering and describing a bers would refer potential site destruction to the number of Iroquoian sites along the Nith River Ministry SWO region office and London and Bill Fox (Nixon 1985). His fieldwork was always exemplary and Ian Kenyon in most cases initiated salvage exca- and he regularly reported under Ministry licensing vation. Charlie contributed in a number of ways here. requirements. Charlie was a true “avocational archae- He was the one who brought the Force site to the ologist” before the term came into active use. Far attention of Bill Fox, and Charlie and his brother Ed from being a collector of artifacts he was a collector were mainstays in the volunteer excavation crews of of information about past life-ways.As a testimony to that site and a number of others. The picture of his keen desire to preserve the past, in his failing Charlie with the wheelbarrow was at another one of years, he arranged for Mima Kapches to come to Ayr the ACO salvage excavations at the Calvert site about and pick up all of the artifacts he had recovered and 1982. In talking with Bill Fox recently, one of his first take them back to the ROM. thoughts about Charlie was that he could always be As a member of the ACO program he was always depended upon to assist in the ACO salvage excava- ready to assist professional archaeologists by sharing tions even though he was in his 60s at the time.At the information and site locations when they were con- annual ACO conference in 1982, Charlie was award- ducting research in his area. Unfortunately the “pro- ed a citation for his contributions to the ACO pro- fessionals” were not always as professional as Charlie. gram signed by then-premier Bill Davis. In one instance a professional (who shall remain Of course Charlie’s participation came as a pack- nameless) after receiving a great deal of help from age, as through various digs and social events like the Charlie, subsequently referred to him in his report as picnics we came to know well both his wife Kay and a “local pot hunter” much to Charlie’s dismay. During his brother Ed. All those who knew Charlie and his the early 1980s when the ACO program was flourish- family will cherish the memory of the times we spent ing and before provincial regulations had firmly together over a shovel at an excavation or around a entrenched CRM archaeological mitigation, mem- fire at the chapter picnic.

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 7

Additional commentary on Charlie’s life outside of Charlie’s memory may be made to the Christ archaeology is at the website of the Kitchener news- Anglican Church, K-W Food Bank or Amnesty paper The Record: http://tinyurl.com/22w5t3 International. Online condolences or donations may Many knew the man - few remember the boy! be arranged through www.wmkippfuneralhome.com He gave what he had - giving was indeed his or by contacting Wm. KIPP 519-442-3061. joy. Condolences sent from the OAS to the Hard work and simple pleasures, but there was funeral home always a smile. To find a better man one On behalf of all of Charlie’s will have to walk many a friends at the Ontario long mile. Archaeological Society and the London Chapter of the same, I Charlie - you will be greatly would like to express my condo- missed. lences to the family on Charlie’s passing. I count it a privilege to The funeral home’s have known Charlie for 30 years published obituary now and have worked with him a CHARLIE NIXON Peacefully number of times on various at Parkwood Hospital, London archaeological excavations as well on Thursday, July 19, 2007; as the business of the Society. Charles Owen Nixon former Charlie was the first president of longtime resident of Ayr, in his the London Chapter back in 1977 91st year; beloved husband of the late Kathleen and was instrumental in giving it a strong start and Blakey (2004); dear father of Kathleen (Liz) and hus- the impetus that is evident right to this day. His sur- band David R. Bates of London, and Charles Nixon vey work was exemplary and of the highest profes- (Lori) of Guelph; grandfather of Meredith and Emily sional standards. He was always fascinated in precon- Nixon; also dearly missed by his extended family; tact lifeways and did a number of experiments in fire predeceased by daughter Patricia Ann (1962), broth- and tool production. His atlatl (throwing stick) er Edward (2004), and sisters Jane Beattie (1994) and proved highly entertaining back at the first London Patricia Alpine (2004). Charlie was very proud of his Chapter picnic bringing a great deal of enjoyment as 50-year Gold membership in the Brick Layer and we fumbled with the proper technique to make it Stone Mason Union; served overseas during the work properly. I recall at the time thinking enviously Second World War with the 5th Division Signals of those who could call him “father”. Charlie will be Corps; very involved in the Scouting movement sadly missed here. before and after the war; proud member of the Ontario Archaeology Association; an environmental- References ist; a conservationist; and a longtime devoted mem- Nixon, Charles ber of Christ Anglican Church, Ayr. In the past few An Experiment in Primitive Fire-Making, Tool and years, he had taken up water colour painting. Friends Weapon Making. Kewa 79-8 will be received at the AYR CHAPEL, Wm. KIPP Middle Iroquoian Settlement Along the Lower Nith FUNERAL HOME, 183 Northumberland Street, Ayr River and Horner Creek Drainages, Kewa 85- on Sunday from 2 to 4 and 7 to 9 p.m. Funeral serv- 7 ice will be held at Christ Anglican Church, Manley Street, Ayr on Monday, July 23 at 2:00 p.m. Reverend [Reprinted from Kewa with permission of J. Keron] France Ouimet-Wilson officiating. Donations in

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 8 Letters

August 21, 2007 Statement of Ethical Principles should also be amend- Board of Directors, c/o Mr. Jean-Luc Pilon, President ed so that Principle 8 becomes Principle 1. The Ontario Archaeological Society Inc., Our desire is to be kept informed of work being done, and to be involved in the science-of-archaeolo- Dear Fellow Members; gy activity because it confirms the past existence of RE: Ontario Archaeological Society Inc. (OAS) and the locations of specific activities by our Statement of Ethical Principles. Algonquin ancestors and their predecessors. We are We, the Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn, have an seeking dialogue with Archaeologists who may pro- ongoing interest and a concern regarding the artifacts vide current information on survey activity within that are being removed by Archaeologists working our unceded Territory. We ask to be informed of the within our unceded territory and we have expressed status of those “prehistoric/aboriginal” artifacts that our thoughts on the subject via the 2004 publication are being, and that have been removed: Where and by of the Umbrella Protocol of the Algonquins of who are they held? We want access to those artifacts Pikwàkanagàn for the Management of Archaeological for teaching and for exhibit. Resources in Unceded Algonquin Territory. The Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn are interested in We are concerned by the accelerating development Archaeology and over the past several years we have: activity taking place upon our unceded land and by Developed the Umbrella Protocol of the Algonquins the apparent desire of some Developers to minimize of Pikwàkanagàn for the Management of the importance of the archaeological survey. Our Archaeological Resources in Unceded Algonquin concern is heightened by the fact that, during the Territory; three years since its publication, a total of only three • Developed a very active Standing Committee of (3) OAS Members have expressed an interest or have Council on Archaeology; responded to our Umbrella Protocol. To us, it is par- • Participated in archaeological field work; ticularly disappointing to realize that a number of • Established a Temporary Archaeological Members show no respect for Principle 8 of the OAS Repository (and hope for a new facility). Statement of Ethical Principles, Principles that: “The We do enjoy our OAS membership and we look members of the Society are proud to proclaim adher- forward to a long and mutually beneficial relation- ence to...”. ship with OAS. While we realize that the OAS is not a regulatory Please keep me informed of your action on the body, it is hoped that the Board may influence OAS issues I have raised here. Members by urging them to actively demonstrate Thank you, their respect for those Ethical Principles. Since the OAS is currently considering changes to Kirby Whiteduck, Chief the Constitution, it is our suggestion that the OAS Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn

Chief Kirby Whiteduck crete that related to its content. I now feel I can write October 1, 2007 you with some thoughts about it. Algonquins of Pikwàkanagàn I remember quite well when the Umbrella Protocol 1657A Mishòmis Inamo, Pikwàkanagàn was unveiled at the annual symposium of the Ontario Golden Lake, ON K0J 1X0 Archaeological Society in Midland. If you recall, I actively participated in the discussions at that time. Dear Chief Whiteduck, What I perceived then, and what your letter rein- I received your letter of August 21, a couple of forces, is that there is a community, a First Nations weeks ago. I read it carefully and decided not to community, which is keenly interested in the archaeo- respond before I had actually done something con- logical process that takes place within their tradition-

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 9 al lands. I do not find any insistence or blind adher- Finally, this past week I submitted an electronic ence to rhetoric or unthinking demands. Rather, I copy of your August 21st letter for inclusion in the read that you appreciate what archaeology has to September/October issue of Arch Notes, the OAS teach us all and that you wish to benefit from and members’ newsletter/bulletin. In doing so, I wish to participate in the process. I am also reminded by the remind our members of your concerns and especial- Protocol’s title, that much of Eastern Ontario is ly of your desire to be more widely consulted and “Unceded Algonquin Territory”. included in the archaeological process within your You state that “a number of Members [of the OAS] traditional lands. appear to show no respect for Principle 8 of the OAS A few years ago, you and I spent a fair amount of Statement of Ethical Principles…”If you believe there time reviewing matters relating to archaeological her- have been serious breaches of this principle, then I itage in Eastern Ontario within the context of the strongly encourage you to bring the matter before the three-way comprehensive land claims negotiation Board of Directors, as outlined in the Statement of process. As such, you are keenly aware of some of the Ethical Principles and as elaborated in the OAS strictures within which archaeologists currently must Constitution. I assure you that the Board would give work. The requirements of the licensing and report- such issues full hearings and attempt to address them ing environments often leave little time for adequate to everyone’s satisfaction. consultation and the current system has no place for Your letter mentions amending the Statement of it. Back then, I thought the regulatory loop should be Ethical Principles in order to place Principle 8, the opened to allow First Nation participation in a heads- one referring to members’ relations with First up, transparent fashion. I still adhere to this belief. Nations, as the first Principle in the list. Seeing that Finally, I just wish to state that the OAS greatly val- this document is outside of the Constitution, chang- ues your membership and your obvious interest in ing it would not necessarily be as arduous or rigorous archaeology.We have much in common and, we hope as changing the OAS Constitution. However, I hasten you will agree, much to offer each other. Your com- to point out that this listing of 10 Principles is in no munity’s efforts in developing the Umbrella Protocol, way a ranking or prioritizing of principles. There are establishing a Standing Committee on Archaeology, all of equal value and importance.Yet it could be said participating in archaeological fieldwork and creating that being eighth in a list of 10 could be misunder- a Temporary Archaeological Repository are all glow- stood for a less significant order. This being said, I ing testimony to your revolve. would have no objections to moving the current Let’s maintain the dialogue. Principle 8 into the position of Principle 1. The Board of Directors will be meeting in less than 2 weeks and Jean-Luc Pilon, Ph.D. I will place this proposal before them, and I will President, OAS report back to you shortly thereafter.

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 10

OAS trip to Quebec City in 2008

Quebec City, the original part of which is a UNESCO OAS will organize times at which certain “behind the World Heritage Site, is now in full preparation for the scenes” activities are available, and where group visits celebration in 2008 for the 400th anniversary of it’s are arranged. The intent would be to plan certain founding. activities on a group basis, and to leave more than Since 2005 has been carrying out enough time for everyone to explore on their own. work on the site of the Dufferin Terrace, a part of the Estimated cost (and using Toronto as a guideline, St. Louis Forts and Chateaux (a National Historic Site which is 750 km from Quebec City) for four days, of Canada), and in the summer of 2008 Parks Canada Saturday, August 2 – Tuesday, August 5, is about $300 will offer guided tours of the vestiges of the St. Louis per person for travel and accommodation, based on 6 Forts and Chateau to all visitors. Parks Canada alone occupants per minivan and double occupancy at the is investing $11.5 million in the reconstruction of the hotel. This excludes meals (except breakfast) and Dufferin Terrace and in archaeological digs under- entrance fees. Cost from other departure cities would neath the boardwalk, as seen in the two photos below. be slightly different, based on gas usage. In addition to the Parks Canada effort, there are Visit the MyQuebec2008.com website, where you extensive renovations and a lot of building activity will see that in the month of August 2008 there are 33

going on all over the city so that it can welcome the planned activities. At this time we wish to determine world to its anniversary. the level of interest, so if you are interested in joining By the time all the work is completed, the city is other members of the OAS for this interesting trip, to sure to be quite spectacular. renew old friendships and make new ones, please The OAS is therefore inviting its members to join contact Henry van Lieshout at 416-446-7673 or at this celebration over the August 2008 Simcoe Day [email protected]. long-weekend. There are three elements to this trip, transportation, accommodation, and activities. It is probably most practical for members to travel in private vehicles or in rented minivans. The latter can be shared by up to 6 people and the OAS will make booking arrangements once participation levels by city are known. As for accommodation, the OAS will arrange a block booking at a hotel (there are some that offer a shuttle service to the old city so that parking downtown is not a problem or cost), and the

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 11 Thoughts on Genoa Frilled

By Jeff Bursey to be based on a variety of paradigmatic perspectives In a recent issue of Ontario Archaeology,Alicia and it is to these that I will briefly turn before consid- Hawkins (2004) presented some of her views on the ering the Genoa Frilled pottery itself. possible origins and potential future directions for The most paradigmatic change undoubtedly was research on the distinctive pottery type Genoa Frilled associated with the advent of the “New Archaeology”. (MacNeish 1952:50-51). As she noted in that paper, I One of the main themes of the changes that occurred had commented upon an early draft and offered in archaeology in the 1960s was a reaction against some thoughts I have had over the years. In brief, I what was perceived to be the hyper-diffusionism of had begun an analysis of rim sherds from all across earlier works. In the northeast, I would call the rejec- southern Ontario in the late 1980s for the purposes of tion of hyper-diffusionism to be at best partial exploring various issues of culture-history and con- because in some places, interpretations continued to tact. I had examined collections housed at the hold that population changes could be detected by as Ministry in Toronto, which included Frank Ridley’s little as a change in pottery temper. For the most part, collections, as well as assemblages at the Huronia however, hyper-autochthonism replaced hyper-diffu- Museum, St. Marie Among the Hurons and numerous sionism and the default interpretation is that popula- assemblages borrowed from various consulting firms tions documented at contact had been there almost and individuals. Since one initial purpose was to since the glaciers had left. Many mechanisms for attempt to distinguish exotic rimsherds from local moving ideas and objects across the landscape have styles (e.g., distinguishing Lalonde High Collar from been proposed, of course, but the people always seem New York and other high-collar types), it should not to have to return to where they came from. Stylistic be surprising that the Genoa Frilled pottery type horizons may be noted (until local type-names are caught my attention. In fact, at this time I had the proposed) but the preferred explanation seems to be pleasure of working with Dr. W. Engelbrecht on this in situ experimentation, perhaps following relatively topic and it was from him that I got the frequencies of casual contact of some kind. Genoa Frilled on some New York assemblages, which Two exceptions to this generalisation can be noted. I forwarded to Hawkins more recently. Unfortunately, The most obvious is the appearance of European my thoughts on the topic never quite became coher- trade goods and, later, the Europeans themselves. ent enough to publish and I suspect that this may be During the last half of the 17th century, there were why I was not able to convey them accurately to other population movements that impacted the histo- Hawkins. This offering, then, is made in the hopes ry of southern Ontario. First, the “Ontario that I can be more precise and clarify some of my Iroquoians” were dispersed. Subsequently, there were ideas. several New York Iroquoian settlements along the Following the detailed “coding”of over 50,000 rims north shore of Lake Ontario. These people were then from literally hundreds of assemblages, a number of moved out and replaced by Algonquian speakers conclusions came to me upon reflection. In short, a from further north. I do not question that these considerable amount of variation is present that can events and processes occurred but I would note that be interpreted using any number of explanatory par- these are entirely based on historical documentation adigms. In addition to evidence of broader regional and there is little or no record of related archaeologi- interaction, through time there can also be some cal investigations to date in the published literature. blending or miscegenation, as initially explored by One unexplored problem with the archaeology of the Pendergast (1980). While it might be possible to early historic period is that we have little means of argue that there are a large number of entrenched distinguishing between, for example, historic First opinions on this and related topics and many are sup- Nations and EuroCanadian occupations except ported with little more than appeals to authority or ad through recourse to historic documentation. In short, hominem attacks, other arguments, however, appear whatever caveats we might have in mind regarding

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 12 the biases of historical documentation or the weak- other words, while there are no universal rules for nesses of the direct historical approach, the historical how ethnicity is defined, this does not mean that record appears to be accepted in a paradigmatic man- there are no rules. These just vary from case to case ner. and from time to time (e.g., Fardon 1986). The second exception to the above generalisation Compounding this issue is the fact that the vast may be of more interest since it was recently ques- majority of the literature dealing with ethnicity has tioned in a paper presented at a conference focused on either hunter-gatherers or issues of racism (Michelaki 2006). The appearance of shell tempering and ethnicity in, or in relation to, modern state-level and various stylistic attributes associated with archae- industrial society. It has long been established that ological complexes to the west and southwest of the hunter-gatherers may establish and preserve kinship Ontario Iroquoians has long been noted and associat- and other relations that cross “ethnic” boundaries as a ed with historically documented wars between the form of “social storage”. On the other hand, the Neutrals and the “Fire Nation”. Michelaki questioned processes of colonisation that has occurred around this and suggested that the adoption of shell temper- the world has led to numerous examples of drastic ing may have been the product of in situ experimen- change amongt aboriginal peoples including various tation of a superior technique of manufacturing pot- kinds of cultural collapse and diasporas. These in tery.This,ofcourse,is the same interpretive mecha- turn have led to many examples of revitalisation nism most commonly proposed to account for most movements, ethnogenesis or ethnoregenesis, an of the change in material culture seen through time almost universal characteristic of which includes in this region.While I cannot claim to know how this appeal to primordial ideals as a means of giving these idea has been regarded by the majority of the archae- movements legitimacy (e.g., Rappoport 1999:428). ological community,I would expect that it will be Certainly there seem to be those who argue for con- rejected because it runs counter to the historical tinuity even in cases where this cannot be illustrated record and the opinions of the established archaeo- from the archaeological record, but for these argu- logical community. While I have to admit that I pre- ments, the role for archaeology may be limited. fer a variation on the traditional interpretation (see Arguments from historical documents (or oral tradi- below), I am interested to see how (or indeed if) tions) is given priority with or without an acknowl- Michelaki’s hypothesis is treated by those who invoke edgement that there may be biases present. identical mechanisms to explain change in material Suffice it to say that, while I would acknowledge culture during prehistoric times. that historians,ethnographers,folklorists,etc.,are A second theoretical perspective that must be entitled to the biases of their particular disciplinary addressed concerns the relationship between materi- focus, I prefer to retain the biases generated from the al culture and “ethnicity” or collective group identity. study of material culture because, as an archaeologist, The topic of ethnicity itself has been of interest to me that is what I have to work with. This is not to say that for quite some time now and I think it is much too I advocate ignoring insights drawn from other disci- broad a topic to be dealt with here. There are two plines. On the contrary, I believe in using historic, problems I see in the discussion of these ideas. First, ethnohistoric, ethnographic, etc., documentation, too many seem content to simply cite Barth’s original where it is available, to generate hypotheses to test 1969 paper (Barth 1981) without considering the with the archaeological record and to test that record. many critiques of it (e.g., Gil-White 1999).As I briefly I believe all these disciplines and data sets, like argued elsewhere (Bursey 2006:27-28), while the “cir- archaeology, may contain their own biases and limi- cumstantialist” perspective may appeal to some of tations. If I am not to accept that the Bible, for exam- our ideals, it is not a pragmatic consideration of the ple, provides an absolute literal account of Creation reality of how ethnicity is determined and, in fact, or even the historic events contained, then I am going only presents half of it at best. For the most part, to be to be just as suspicious of any other historical source a full member of an ethnic group, one must be born from the Iliad to recorded oral traditions. into it. That what counts as “membership by birth” Given the problems with the concept of ethnicity, also varies from group to group is often forgotten. In it should not be surprising that there are related prob-

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 13 lems of using material culture to identify potential I don’t know how or why Ridley, Kidd, etc., selected ethnic groups. I suspect few versed in the archaeolog- certain middens for excavation, but it is possible that ical literature of today would suggest that we can sim- they selected areas to dig where Genoa Frilled rims plistically use rim sherds or projectile points to iden- were on the surface. The issues of sampling and depo- tify ethnicity any more than we can use net sinkers of sitional and post-depositional contexts must always flake scrapers. Even such seemingly diagnostic crite- be taken into account (e.g., Hodder 2005). If we wish ria as religion or burial patterns may not always be to understand a little more about the people who reliable given the observation that Algonquians were made these pots, I think the first place to start is look- observed to include their dead in a Huron ossuary ing at change through time as seen in stratified mid- (see a more detailed discussion in Fox and Garrad dens and features on the sites these pots are found. 2004). Making matters more difficult is the observa- We may find that, for example, in some ways the older tion that both “culture” and material culture changed pots are more foreign looking but become more through time so that ethnicity is at least in part Huron-like through time. Controlled excavation of dependant upon historical context. Add to this such deep middens and stratified features may provide us complex ideas as those of agency theorists who argue with a lot of information here. that culture is changing from instant to instant and Continuing to take the historical accounts as we are faced with added challenges to identify conti- given, Hawkins notes that the Wenro refugees initial- nuity. However, I would certainly argue that it is every ly settled in established villages and houses. If these bit as problematic to reject, out of hand, the use of were not built specifically for them, then these hous- material culture for these purposes. A point that I es will have been lived in for a while and, all other think is overlooked too often is that we really don’t things being equal, middens and pits would have use anything else to distinguish a Paleoindian site been at least partially filled with refuse. from a Late Woodland or historic EuroCanadian Consequently, the Genoa Frilled would eventually occupation. In fact, it is really only the study of mate- become deposited stratigraphically higher in these rial culture, and its inferred patterns in space and middens and features. Recovery of Genoa Frilled time, that archaeologists have to study. Therefore, it is from those specific occupations would be much less to the archaeological record I will now turn. likely if these sites were mechanically stripped As noted above, in the late 1980s I was able to because mechanical stripping selectively removes the examine a large number of assemblages of rim sherds uppermost layers of a site. Unfortunately, the eco- from southern Ontario and did see many examples of nomic pressures within the CRM industry seem to the Genoa Frilled pottery type from sites that also prevent taking into account the consequences of produced European trade goods. These rims exhibit a excavating in this way and so we may have to rely on great deal of diversity. Some seem to blend with other other kinds of archaeology to provide some of these western New York types, in particular, Seneca Barbed answers. collar. I didn’t find this surprising because if Genoa However, if the Genoa Frilled represents a migra- Frilled was related to the migration of Wenro tion of Wenro refugees, I wouldn’t expect it to have refugees then, the Wenro having been located some- appeared out of the blue. In fact, I would expect that where west of the Seneca, I would have expected there would be indications of pre-existing relation- them to share many “types” and stylistic attributes ships that go back further in time. I would think it with the Seneca and Cayuga, much like Neutral and quite likely that small numbers of Wenros were living Huron assemblages do. I don’t necessarily see that among the Hurons (and Neutrals) for decades or per- Wenro sites need necessarily be dominated by Genoa haps generations and that over this time, there would Frilled and I would expect that other types, ranging have been some blending of stylistic traits. This, in from Seneca Barbed Collar to Dutch Hollow fact, would account for some of the variation in the Notched, would also be present and on many of these rims that look more similar to Huron rims with the assemblages that appears to be the case. addition of the frill. Given the increased hostility Ofcourse,there is no question that in some of between the Hurons and western New York these assemblages, Genoa Frilled seems to dominate. Iroquoians in the early 17th century, it is also possible

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 14 that frilling was given increased emphasis among the (whatever they might be) and undergo the same resident Wenros and other western New York traits blending with local styles. Furthermore, other were de-emphasised. We might also look for some Iroquoian traits and European trade goods seem to kind of small ethnoregenesis among the Wenro after appear at roughly the same time, i.e., early in the 17th the diaspora. I think it is worth bearing in mind that century or perhaps earlier. vestiges of other groups such as the Tutelo can be My hypothesis, then, is that the Wenro might have found among the Six Nations Haudenosaunee resi- been involved in trade originating in the Chesapeake dents of today, but it requires a careful look. Bay region and moved these goods west to the interi- As I noted, I think one key to the mystery of the or, and north to Ontario. That they might have also Wenro may be found by looking at the topic of trade. acquired European trade goods in Ontario and One insight into this topic was provided by Kenyon moved them west or southeast wouldn’t be surpris- and Fitzgerald’s (1986) paper on trade between the ing. I wouldn’t want to speculate too much on Neutrals and Susquehannock (Pendergast’s 1991 Pendergast’s Massawomeck at this time but I suspect study of the Massawomeck could also be consulted there might be some substance in this material. Either but I will leave the debate over the interpretation of way, this positioning as middlemen in a trade net- the historical documents to others). In short, it work that bypassed the New York Iroquoians would occurred to me that the Wenro may have been a con- certainly have made them a target for elimination as duit in the trade between the Ontario Iroquoians and the fur trade increased in importance. Of course, I the Susquehannock that by-passed the New York don’t think this trade relationship necessarily sprung Iroquoians. That would certainly have made them a up suddenly but may have been a relatively long target for elimination by the Senecas and Cayugas in process of establishing relationships and some of this the early 17th century. For me, a key piece of the puz- might be seen in the blending of stylistic traits in pot- zle is the appearance of frilled pottery on tery. While “trade” is normally considered to be with- Susquehannock sites.While I will not pretend to fully in the realm of men, we do know that women also grasp the intricacies of the dating of sites with glass participated to some degree, in some contexts, and I beads, it struck me that it is possible that frilled pot- don’t think it unlikely that some families may have tery appears on Susquehannock sites at a comparable moved over large distances as a means of sealing time, or perhaps earlier, than it appears on Ontario alliances. The question of whether these families sites. This would include, of course, the appearance of stayed relatively permanently or only for a few years this motif before the diaspora and the likelihood that may be approachable in some ways. I think it is worth there was some trait blending with local styles. I adding that we might see some change in the distri- would not, however, suggest that the frilling necessar- bution of Genoa Frilled after the diaspora. While the ily originated among the Susquehannock. Instead, I Wenros might have been of “significance” as trade suspect it appeared through a common means. partners before the diaspora, and some may have Suggesting a connection between the Huron (and retained their trade routes, others may have lost pres- Neutrals) and the Susquehannock by way of the tige through time and been relocated, etc., to other Wenro, however, only presents part of the picture. I villages or tribes for any number of other reasons. had also noted, in the Huron assemblages, that some Some may have formed small ethnic “barrios” in of the frilled rims do not look at all like typical some villages with their own ethnic revival; others Iroquoian styles. Some in fact, look more like more may have become ethnically amalgamated through western (i.e., Mississippian) collarless pots with the time and simply become Hurons, Neutrals or Petuns. frill added like an appliqué. Given that types like One consequence of these deliberations was to re- “Tuttle Hill Notched” exhibit this same kind of examine my interpretations of foreign or exotic pot frilling and may appear at around the same time, I styles in Ontario assemblages. While I am certainly wondered at this coincidence. While again I am not mindful of problems with sampling (which, in my expert on the dating of Fort Ancient and related opinion have changed but definitely not improved), it assemblages, it seemed to me that the frilling of pots appears to me that there might be some interesting might appear at the same time, for the same reasons but unexplored patterns through time. For example,

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 15 at least in the larger assemblages, it appeared to me “Fire Nation” to the west or that some of the western that foreign styles appear to be relatively common on exotic pottery styles came from captives, etc., this may late 15th and early 16th century sites. By the late 16th not provide the entire picture. One possibility is that century and into the early 17th century, these appear the Neutrals had tried to establish a trade network to to diminish in relative frequency. St. Lawrence styles, the west with the Fire Nations but these long-term for example, appear to be quite distinctive at first but relationships broke down resulting in the historically seem to become more like Huron pots through time. documented wars. Alternatively, the Neutrals may I know that I am not alone in suspecting that at least have been trying to establish alliances and trade with some of the St. Lawrence Iroquoian diaspora settled other groups in the region but the Fire Nation stood amongst the Huron. Interestingly, in the Kingdon col- in the way. Given that we know there was a great deal lection housed at UTM, the Foster site (BcGr-5) site of diversity in alliances and foreign relationships assemblage includes a considerable amount of St. among the Hurons, so much so that some Hurons Lawrence Iroquoian pottery and this site has pro- ultimately joined the Iroquois but others did not, I duced glass beads. Sites like these may provide very would expect that a detailed intra-site analysis of solid evidence for where the St. Lawrence Iroquoians Huron, Neutral, Fire Nation, etc., sites will reveal a went, although sites like this one are being looted or similar complexity. Certainly we have reason to infer lost to development so our chances of addressing that Huron styles survived among the Mohawks after some of these questions are decreasing. the destruction of the Huron confederacy (Kuhn and New York Iroquoian styles on Ontario sites seem Snow 1986) so, even when two polities were at war, to diminish at about the same time that the histori- this does not mean that all individuals acted in uni- cally documented hostilities between the Hurons and son. Whether the producers of the Huron pottery on the New York Iroquoians increase. There are some the Mohawk sites were true captives or were more exceptions, however. In fact, I suspect that where we sympathetic refugees will require more of a detailed see an increase in these exotic styles, particularly contextual analysis. western New York styles, what we are actually seeing Clearly, I think there is much more work that can are styles from western New York groups other than and should be done on Genoa Frilled pottery and the Seneca and Cayuga. In other words, what we are related topics. Certainly the kinds of analysis report- seeing in exotic pottery styles is not evidence of con- ed and being undertaken by Hawkins is an important flicts (i.e., the captive bride hypothesis), but evidence step. Whether or not Genoa Frilled pottery is ulti- of trade and alliance building. Given the regularity of mately seen as the product of contact and the migra- new village sites being found in the GTA, it will not tion of the Wenro, I suspect that detailed analysis will surprise me if new villages, village sequences and reveal a lot of information about how style moves even tribal groups remain to be found in western through a population and changes over time. New York and I would predict that these will produce Certainly there is plenty of room for examining the both western New York pottery styles and styles from agency or idiosyncratic variation of individual pot- further west still. ters. In egalitarian societies like these, we should not This brings me back to the topic of Western Basin expect that all individuals, even those living in close pottery on 17th century Neutral sites. I had long association, will behave in identical ways. thought that the appearance of shell tempering, Chasing the origins of this stylistic attribute, how- appliqué strips, etc., might serve as a “classic” example ever, will require an examination of sites all across of the captive bride hypothesis given the support southern Ontario and into New York, Pennsylvania, from the historical documents often cited. While this etc. In all these cases we will need to pay close atten- may remain the case (I see no reason to presuppose tion to how sites are looked for and excavated. As has that inter-ethnic relationships between Iroquoians been noted in at least some of the literature on agency and non-Iroquoians would necessarily mirror those (e.g.,Walker and Lucero 2000), in order to find varia- between different Iroquoian groups), an alternative tion at the level of the individual, we will need to look hypothesis is also possible. Specifically, while I would closely at the scale under which the individual oper- not question that the Neutrals were at war with the ates. We will need to pay close attention to micros-

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 16 tratigraphy and spatial distributions within the long- Gil-White,F.J. house. Given the economic and other pressures oper- 1999 How Thick is Blood? The Plot Thickens …: If ating within the CRM industry, I am uncertain Ethnic Actors Are Primordialists, What whether we will get many answers there, and for Remains of the Circumstantialist/ many key questions, the sites excavated in the man- Primordialist Controversy? Ethnic And Racial ners seemingly found acceptable in CRM may end up Studies 22(5):789-820. being considered just lost to development. Therefore, Hawkins, A. I am happy to note that Hawkins has been active with 2004 Recreating Home? A Consideration of research and field schools being conducted on Late Refugees, Microstyles and Frilled Pottery in Woodland villages in Huronia and elsewhere and Huronia. Ontario Archaeology 77/78:62-80. wish her continued luck. I am also happy that she is Hodder, I. willing to explore alternative ideas and interpreta- 2005 An Archaeology of the Four-Field Approach tions. My thoughts on this topic, as presented above, in Anthropology in the United States. In are not ones that I hold dogmatically, but are mere Unwrapping the Sacred Bundle: Reflections on exploratory ideas. I think it is important to forward the Disciplining of Anthropology, edited by D. alternative ideas and look for ways to test and discard A. Segal and S. J. Yanagisako, pp. 126-140. the weaker ones. Doing this means that we will need Duke University Press, Durham. to place much greater attention on context, which I Kenyon, I., and W.Fitzgerald take to include the context in the field (i.e., potential- 1986 Dutch Glass Beads in the Northeast: An ly everything from the details of a feature to what Ontario Perspective. Man in the Northeast went on around that feature), to the context provided 32:1-34. by history, ethnography, the politics of archaeology, etc. Partial and superficial looks at sites and assem- Kuhn, R. D., and D. R. Snow (editors) blages will ultimately not be enough. 1986 The Mohawk Valley Project: 1983 Jackson- Everson Excavations. The Institute for References Northeast Anthropology, State University of Barth, F. New York at Albany. 1981 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. In Process MacNeish, R. S. and Form in Social Life: Selected Essays of 1952 Iroquois Pottery Types. National Museum of Fredrik Barth, Volume 1. Pp. 198-227. Canada, Bulletin 124, Ottawa. Routledge & Paul Kegan Ltd., London. Originally entitled ‘Introduction’ to F. Barth Michelaki, C. (ed.) Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. (1969) 2006 Integrating Archaeological Science and Social Little Brown & Co., Boston. Theory to Gain a New Insight into Iroquoian Ceramics. Unpublished paper presented at Bursey, J. A. the Canadian Archaeological Association 2006 The Frog Pond Site (AhGx-359): The Annual Meeting, Toronto, Ontario. Identification of a 17th-Century Neutral Iroquoian Medicine Lodge in Southern Pendergast,J.F. Ontario. Canadian Journal of Archaeology 1980 Ceramic Motif Mutations at Glenbrook. In 30(1):1-39. Proceedings of the 1979 Iroquois Pottery Conference, edited by C. F. Hayes III, pg. 133- Fardon, R. 145. Rochester Museum and Science Center, 1985 ‘African Ethnogenesis’: Limits to the Research Records No. 13. Comparability of Ethnic Phenomena. In Comparative Anthropology,edited by L.Holy, 1991 The Massawomeck: Raiders and Traders into pp. 168-188. Basil Blackwell, Oxford. the Chesapeake Bay in the Seventeenth Century. Transactions of the American Fox, W.A., and C. Garrad Philosophical Society, Volume 81 Part 2. The 2004 Hurons in an Algonquian Land. Ontario American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Archaeology 77/78:121-134.

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Rappaport, R. A. Walker, W.H., and L. J. Lucero 1999 Ritual and Religion in the Making of 2000 The Depositional History of Ritual and Humanity. Cambridge University Press, Power. In Agency and Archaeology,edited by Cambridge. M.-A. Dobres and J. E. Robb, pp. 130-147. Routledge, London. Pukaskwa Pits: Rethinking the Vision Quest Hyothesis

By Nancy Champagne vision quest hypothesis (Arthurs 1981; Caldwell & The following article is a reaction to Patrick Julig’s Carlson 1954; Carmichael 1979, 1981; Dawson 1975, article published in Arch Notes (New series 12(3) 1979, 1981; Emerson 1959; Noble 1968; Wright 1963, 2007), entitled: A Brief report on a Killarney 1995, 2004) while others have not ( Carruthers 1982; Pukaskwa Pit (BlHi-10). I am studying Pukaskwa Pits Fox 1990; Greenman 1964; MacMillan 1986 (avoca- for my master’s thesis and was excited to read about tional archaeologist); McIlwraith 1958; Ross & the discovery of a new Pukaskwa Pit in Killarney D’Annibale 1995, 1996, 2000; Ross et al.1997, 1998, Provincial Park. The article, however, raised some 1999; Smith 1910). concern over the contemporary interpretation of Research on Pukaskwa Pits in Pukaskwa National these enigmatic sites. Park has been conducted by Parks Canada since 1989 The term Pukaskwa Pit first appeared in print in and with this research, Parks Canada has developed 1958 when Norman Emerson and Thomas new hypotheses that are shape specific. The beaches McIlwraith both wrote about the Red Sucker Point of Pukaskwa National Park, on the north shore of site, near Terrace Bay, on the north shore of Lake , are surveyed and documented for a Superior. What is a typical Pukaskwa Pit? The origi- two-week field season every summer by Parks nal definition states that a Pukaskwa Pit is a structure Canada archaeologist Brian Ross and his team from with low walls and corresponding depression where the Ontario Service Centre and Public Works. This stones have been removed from within the enclosure; work is making its way north on the Pukaskwa Park usually elongated ovals in shape (McIlwraith coastline, revisiting beaches that were surveyed by 1958:41). Dawson during his 1974 field season and discovering Norman Emerson (1960) was the first archaeolo- beaches that had not previously been investigated. gist in Canada to suggest Pukaskwa pits were used for Discussion a spiritual purpose; specifically that of vision quests. The different shapes and sizes of Pukaskwa Pits Kenneth Dawson (1975; 1979) conducted the first likely reflect the nature and duration of occupation survey of cobble beaches in Pukaskwa National Park on these beaches and the different function of these and printed his interpretations. Since the 1950s, and structures through time. It is believed by many later cemented in 1975, the vision quest hypothesis archaeologists that the Pukaskwa pit sites represent has become established in Ontario archaeology. campsites of various durations and that each feature Vision quests were conducted by pubescent adoles- shape was used for a specific purpose by their origi- cents, in isolated places, usually on high ground, to nal architects. fast and meditate (Emerson 1960:72) in an attempt to Temporary storm shelters could have been con- get into contact with their spirit Manitous. Vision structed on these beaches by people on the waters of quests were also conducted before hunts and by Lake Superior who needed to seek shelter on land members of the Midéwiwin society and jessakkids (Fox 1990:470; MacMillan 1986:6; Ross 1994:121). (Carmichael 1979:104). This hypothesis is strongly These people may have been in the area to exploit based on an analogy with ethnohistoric documents. resources or visit people, or be en-route to another Numerous archaeologists have supported the destination. Temporary shelters could be represented

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 18 in the archaeological record as oval pits with basin- tions (Rogers 1978:760). The spiritual interpretation shaped floors (Ross et al 1998:155) that may have of Pukaskwa Pits may be a reflection of historic pop- served as single-person habitations, possibly lean-to ulations’ experience with the landscape and these fea- structures, where the watercraft would have been tures, and should not be projected back throughout used as a partial shelter. prehistory. This brings us to the vision quest hypoth- Recurring utilization of a site could have warrant- esis and some of the assumptions inherent in its ed the construction and reuse of semi-permanent acceptance. cobble stone structures (McIlwraith 1958:42; Ross The vision quest hypothesis has three main postu- 1994:121). Semi-subterranean houses used in season- lates, which when carefully examined, exhibit flaws. al base camps (Caruthers 1982:10) could have been First, the hypothesis assumes that the cobble beaches built by mobile hunter-gatherer-fishers for seasonal are in remote, unpopulated areas. These beaches were fishing and hunting activities. Greenman (1964:92) accessible by watercraft. Waterways were highways goes so far as to suggest that these semi-subterranean that moved large amounts of people. The shores of structures are used in the winter for ice fishing. Lake Superior and Georgian Bay are part of an intri- Seasonal base camps would have required more cate network of interconnected waterways. These infrastructure than temporary storm shelters. Pavés, were not remote shorelines; they were easily accessi- levelled surfaces where the larger rocks have been ble and well travelled by the indigenous Algonkian- sorted out of the cobble mixture and only small speaking peoples of the past. stones remain, are believed to be living floors that Second, the paucity of artifacts recovered from would have formed the inside of teepees and wig- cobble beaches has led archaeologists to assume that wams (Ross and D’Annibale 2000:163). These can be these sites could not have been used for habitation round or rectangular. Pole supports are also docu- and subsistence. Rainfall, melting snow, shifting cob- mented on the Pukaskwa shoreline and are believed bles from vibrations, and frost action could have dis- to be used for the drying and smoking of fish (Ross placed artifacts through the cobble matrix in a man- personal communication 2007). Small, circular, ner unknown to archaeologists because the post sometimes pitted features have been interpreted depositional process for cobble beaches has not yet (Ross and D’Annibale 1995: 24; 1996:117 2000:163) been studied. It is also fairly characteristic of all as hearths. Simple circular pits averaging 1.3 metres archaeological sites in northern Ontario to have a in diameter and 0.2 metres deep are believed to be scarceness of artifacts. Post depositional processes opened cache pits (Ross et al. 1998:155; Smith and poor preservation are likely the reason why many 1910:15, 51). These pits may have been temporary artifacts have not been recovered. storage for food, or may have held tools and equip- Lastly, the shores of Lakes Superior are thought to ment left behind for future use. Some smaller exam- be desolate and hold little in resources to attract pre- ples of oval pits may have been cache pits (Ross et al historic populations. Dawson (1975:4) claims that 1998:155). Mounds are believed to be unopened fishing would have been the economic activity to cache pits (Ross & D’Annibale 1996:118; Ross et al. attract people to the area. Besides fish, woodland cari- 1998:155). bou are indigenous to the park as are other mammals Space is socially produced (Tilley 1994:10) and that can be found along the coast, like bear, wolf, later Native populations could have assigned cosmo- skunk, marten, beaver, porcupines, squirrel, and rab- logical meanings to Pukaskwa Pit sites because they bit (Dunlop 1998:5; Marsh 1976:9; Ross 1994:119; were estranged from their original purpose. These Smith and Foster 1982:12). According to Smith and sites have been visible for thousands of years and may Foster (1982:12), caribou and fish would have provid- have been altered by subsequent populations visiting ed most of the biomass within the shoreline environ- the shores. Eventually, the original purpose of ment. Archaeological data suggests that the Late Pukaskwa Pit sites may have been lost as travel along Woodland people of the Upper Great Lakes devel- the Lake Superior coast declined or as the presence of oped a shore-oriented settlement system (Cleland Europeans and the Iroquoian wars pushed Native 1982:772) and, with the exception of its fish populations westward and displaced local popula- resources, the area was likely as impoverished as any

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 19 cultural area of the eastern United States in terms of ological record. Some commonalities may be found total available food resources (Cleland 1982:768). The for features with morphological similarities. multitude of Pukaskwa Pits discovered on the water- However, it is likely that hypotheses will need to be ways between Lake Winnipeg and Lake Huron cou- applied on a per site basis. pled with the sheer size of the fortress site in Conclusion Pukaskwa National Park would indicate that the Norman Emerson’s vision quest hypothesis was resources available in northern Ontario could sustain ground-breaking and brilliant for its time. It identi- a population, though transient, much larger than fied spiritual activity in the archaeological record originally speculated. during a period when other archaeologists (c.f. The dominant theoretical paradigm has changed Hawks 1974) were in agreement that economic and twice since the initial interpretation of Pukaskwa pits. political activities were easier to spot in the archaeo- The leading archaeological theory in the 1950s was logical record, and that religion (cosmology, spiritual- culture history. This theory concentrated on the ity) was outside the realm of inquiry for archaeolo- building of chronologies (Trigger 2006: 394), and gists. when Pukaskwa Pits were first studied by Emerson The spiritual interpretation for Pukaskwa Pits is and McIlwraith (1958), they were in search of a supported by the ethnohistoric sources but it has not Pukaskwa Pit culture that could be plugged into the yet been proven archaeologically. This interpretation existing chronology. Because Pukaskwa Pits are hard has been applied to all shapes and sizes of stone fea- to date without artifacts, they could not be placed tures found on cobble beaches. The vision quest neatly within Ontario’s sequence. Since the cultural- hypothesis has a simple “one size fits all” solution for historic period of archaeological theory, it has been a reality that is archaeologically more complex. common practice to presume sites or artifacts were used for ritual activity when features or artifacts were References encountered that could not be explained by subsis- Arthurs, D. tence, trade or warfare (Howey and O’Shea 1981 The Mysterious Structures on Thompson 2006:261). When spiritual explanations are offered in Island. Arch Notes 81(2):25-28. archaeology, the ethnographic sources, used to make Caldwell, W.W.and Carlson, R.L. an analogy with the current archaeological record, 1954 Further Documentation of “stone Pilling” overpower any possible archaeological interpretation during the Plateau Vision Quest. American and become the working hypothesis for the archaeo- Anthropologist, New Series 56(3):441-442. logical record. In a sense, this undermines the archae- Carmichael, P.H. ology. Ethnographic and historic sources are sup- 1979 The Thunderbird Site EgKx-15: A Prehistoric posed to aid in archaeological interpretations; they Petroform Site in Manitoba. Papers in are a means to an end and should not be the end Manitoba Archaeology Final Report No. 6. itself. Manitoba. During the 1970s, when Dawson published his interpretation of Pukaskwa Pits, he was very proces- 1981 The Thunderbird Site and the Thunderbird sual in his approach and saw only economic reasons Nest Phenomenon in South-eastern as the explanation for seasonal rounds (Trigger Manitoba. In Megaliths to Medicine Wheels: 2006:394). Since he could not find an economic rea- Boulder structures in Archaeology,Michael son for people to be visiting the north shore of Lake Wilson, and Kathie Road and Kenneth Hardy, Superior, Dawson assumed people’s motivations had eds., pp.279-295. Proceedings of the 11th to be spiritual. His spiritual interpretation was sup- Annual Chacmool Conference. University of ported by ethnohistoric documents that provided lots Calgary Archaeological Association, Calgary of examples of spiritual activity being carried out by Alberta. Native peoples. Today, with the help of hindsight and Carruthers, P. with different hypotheses being developed, the vision 1982 Life in the Pits: Semi-Subterranean Houses in quest hypothesis falls short of explaining the archae- the Great Lakes Area. Arch Notes 82(2):10-11

September/October 2007 Arch Notes 12(5) 20

Cleland, C.E. Conference: Archaeological Theory and 1982 The Inland Shore Fishery of the Northern Method: Some Suggestions from the Old Great Lakes: Its Development and World. American Anthropologist 65(1):67-85. Importance in Prehistory. American Antiquity Howey, M.C.L., and O’Shea, J.M. 47(4):761-784. 2006 Bear’s Journey and the Study of Ritual in Dawson, K. Archaeology. American Antiquity 71(2):261- 1975 Archaeological Shore Survey at Pukaskwa 282. Park Ontario, 1974. Manuscript on File, Parks Julig, P. Canada, Cornwall. 2007 A brief Report on a Killarney Pukaskwa Pit. 1979 The Pukaskwa Religious Stone Features of Arch Notes New series 12(3):9-10. Lake Superior. In CARA 1977: papers from the MacMillan, C. fourth Biennial Conference of the Canadian 1986 The Discovery of the Pukaskwa Pits. Rock art Research associates, British Columbia WANIKAN 86(2):4-7. Museum Heritage Record No. 8, Victoria B.C.. Marsh, J.S. 1981 Prehistoric Stone Features of the Relict North 1976 The Human History of The Pukaskwa Shore Cobble Beaches of Lake Superior. In National Park Area 1650 to 1975. Manuscript Megaliths to Medicine Wheels: Boulder on File. Parks Canada, Ontario Service structures in Archaeology, Michael Wilson, Centre, Cornwall. and Kathie Road and Kenneth Hardy, eds., pp. 297-312. Proceedings of the 11th Annual McIlwraith, T.F. Chacmool Conference. University of Calgary 1958 The Pukaskwa Pit Culture. Ontario History Archaeological Association, Calgary Alberta. 50(1):41-43. Dunlop, H.L. Noble, W.C. 1998 Pukaskwa National Park Evaluation of 1968 “Vision pits”,Cairns and Petroglyphs at Rock Archaeological Collections. Manuscript on Lake, Algonquin Provincial Park, Ontario. file. Parks Canada, Ontario service Centre, Ontario Archaeology 11:47-64. Cornwall. Rogers, E.S. Emerson, J.N. 1978 Southeast Ojibwa. In Northeast: Handbook of 1958 The Mystery of the Pits. Sylva 14(6):15-19. North American Indians volume 15, Bruce Trigger ed., pp 760-771. Smithsonian 1959 The Pukaswa Pit Culture: A Pilot Study. Institution, Washington. Ontario Historical Society 51(1):69-72. Ross, B.D. 1960 The Pukaswa Pits and the Religious 1994 In Pukaskwa National Park, Ontario, Canada: Alternative. Ontario Historical Society Monitoring and Protection of Mysterious 52(1):71-72. Stone Structures. In Archaeological Remains Fox, W.A. in Situ Preservation: Proceedings from the 1990 The Odawa. In The Archaeology of Southern second ICAHM International Conference.pp. Ontario to A.D. 1650, Chris J. Ellis and Neal 119-127. Montreal. Ferris, eds., pp. 457-474. London Chapter of Ross, B.D. and C. D’Annibale the Ontario Archaeological Society 1995 Pukaskwa National Park: Pit Recording and Occasional Publication No. 5, London, Inspection (28H). Annual Archaeological Ontario. Report Ontario 6:23-24. Greenman, E.F. 1996 Pukaskwa National Park (28H). Annual 1964 The Pukaskwa Pits on Lake Superior. Archaeological Report Ontario 7:116-123. American Antiquity 30:91-92. 2000 Pukaskwa National Park (28H): Pit Site Hawks, C. Inspection and Documentation. Annual 1974 Wenner-Gren Foundation Supper

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Archaeological Report Ontario 11:162-164. Trigger, B.G. Ross, B.D., C. D’Annibale and K. Spence 2006 A History of Archaeological Thought, second 1997 Pukaskwa National Park: Pit Recording and edition. Cambridge University Press, New Inspection (28H). Annual Archaeological York. Report Ontario 8:115-117. Wright, J.V. 1998 Pukaskwa National Park: Pit site Recording 1963 An Archaeological Survey Along the North and Inspection (28H). Annual Archaeological Shore of Lake Superior. In Archaeological Report Ontario 9:152-156. Papers, National museum of Canada. Department of Northern Affairs and National 1999 Pukaskwa National Park: Pit site Recording Resources Vol. 3: 1-9. and Inspection (28H). Annual Archaeological Report Ontario 10:116-119. 1995 Middle Shield Culture. In A History of the Native People of Canada, Vol 1. Mercury Smith, H.I. Series, Archaeological Survey of Canada 1910 The Archaeology of the Yakima Valley. Paper 152, pp. 261-297. Canadian Museum of American Museum of Natural History, Civilization, Hull Anthropological Papers 6(1), New York. 2004 Northern Algonquian Culture. In A History of Smith, S.A. and G. Foster the Native People of Canada, Vol 3. Mercury 1982 Archaeological Research on the Cobble Beach Series, Archaeological Survey of Canada Sites of Pukaskwa National Park in 1981. Paper 152, pp. 1484-1577. Canadian Museum Manuscript on file. National Parks Branch, of Civilization, Hull. Parks Canada Environment Canada. [Nancy is studying Pukaskwa pits in Pukaskwa Tilley, C. National Park for her Masters thesis at Trent 1994 Places, Paths and Monuments: A University. She is in her second year.] Phenomenology of Landscape.Berg,Oxford.

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