Football in : Más que un Partido

Erin Thomas

SISU-280

Professor Andres

15 September 2016

July 11th, 2010 was a night that turned to day on the backs of celebrating La Roja fans. For a day, and perhaps only a moment, Spain was united in celebration of the final goal of the 2010 Football World Cup – La Roja securing the tourney over their fierce competitor, Holland. Players from all nations of Spain partied, some maybe reluctantly, as “una España” was temporarily united by football. Without context, an observer would be unaware of the city-wide nationalist protest which took place in the day before. They would not realize the rampant youth unemployment and corruption in government, and they would certainly not understand the historical context that surrounds the sport of football in Spain. With such context, Spanish football becomes a gateway to understanding the contemporary history of the country.

Introduced at the end of the 19th century, Spanish football has been shaped by political, economic, social, and cultural circumstance. Used as a lens, understanding the shifts in football over the 20th century can provide interesting insight into these circumstances. Politically, clubs have been used a propaganda by powerful regimes as well as spaces for public demonstration. Socially and culturally, teams within the Spanish league provided entertainment, local heroes, and a rallying point for communities and their ideology. Economically, clubs have both suffered and flourished through the economic rises and falls ultimately blossoming into international capitalist business structures. As Spain trends away from religion, for some, football has become that point of passion and enthusiasm. Ultimately, the narratives of football are pervasive in Spanish society and their historical context can provide insight into contemporary political, economic, social, and cultural developments in Spain.

I am going to start this history at the start of El Clasico, the infamous rivalry between FC Barcelona and Real FC. Before their first match in 1902, football had been only beginning to grow throughout the country. At this time, Spain was suffering from an identity crisis. After losing the Philippines, , and Puerto Rico in the Spanish-American War, 1898 appeared to be the end of the Spanish Empire. The constitutional monarchy remained in power, but after the failure of their past colonization efforts many began questioning the legitimacy of the monarchy itself.1 This identity crisis and uncertainty about the future could have encouraged the rising popularity of football at the time. Adding to the crisis was the rampant regionalism manifesting in nationalistic rhetoric from the Basque Country, , and .2 With strong rhetoric coming from FC Barcelona’s fans, the team met Real Madrid FC in 1902. The game took place in Madrid which was an obvious symbol of attempts to centralize Spain.

During the shifts in regimes and into the II Republic, football remained a point of security for the local cultures. Curiously, play even continued during the beginning of the in Valencia and Barcelona. Given the divisions and unrest in the country, two teams were not invited to compete. At the time, was at the front lines against Franco’s forces, so they were unable to gather the team despite being the top club in the country before the war. The other club that was not invited was Real Madrid. From 1920 to 1931, Madrid FC had been renamed to Real Madrid FC by King Alfonso XII possibly as a move to support Madrid as the capital.3 The Spanish Civil War was a response to the coup d’état which left the country to

1 John A. Crow, “Main Currents of Spanish Thought (1870-1931),” in Spain: The Root and the Flower, 2005, 258– 83. 2 John Hooper, “The ,” in The New Spaniards, 2006, 252–64. 3 Jamie Rainbow, “Gone but Not Forgotten: Football in the Spanish Civil War,” World Soccer, 2012. decide what type of government they wanted in power. Forces were divided between the nationalists and republicans. General , later dictator, led the nationalist forces while the republicans remained generally disorganized and ineffectual. The ban of Real Madrid represents this poor organization in that the club manager was actually communist, the city of Madrid was a republican stronghold, and Real Madrid had been renamed to Madrid FC at the start of the II Republic. The move to still not invite them for play represents the failure of the republican opposition to define what a republican really is.4

Franco’s forces won the Spanish Civil War leading into his 36-year dictatorship. During this time, football played a major role in how political ideology was both shaped and suppressed. According to social scientists, Jorge Tunon and Elisa Brey, there are three ways that sports are used as a vehicle for political ideology. It can be used as propaganda in connecting national team victories with nationalistic ideology. It can also be political in the decisions of which teams can compete at the national level. Most fundamentally, sports provide an event for public demonstrations.5 This brings us back to the reemergence of El Clasico under the Franco regime. Arguably the largest football rivalry in the world, Barcelona FC and FC Real Madrid, paints a historical picture of changes in the relationship between Catalonia and the rest of Spain radiating from the capital, Madrid. Franco’s close relationship with the president of Real Madrid FC, Santiago Bernabeu, helped the club become a pawn and symbol for the regime.6 This symbol also included his plan to unify Spain and suppress the independence movements from the and Catalans further igniting the rivalry between Barcelona FC and Real Madrid. At the same time, for many, the national question was just that, a question:

“To return to Spain. One political peculiarity there is the national question. The wealthiest, most advanced capitalist centres, Catalonia and the Basque Country, are, because of the national question, divided from the bourgeoisie in Madrid, so there is a uniquely weakened Spanish bourgeoisie as a whole. What opportunities does this create in terms of cracks in the regime?”7

Opinions aside, Franco was in charge and called for a single Castilian language and an end to the separatist movements. Hence, his strong support for Real Madrid FC. Beyond simple athletic competition, Franco’s actions – with one player in particular – seems to sum up the essence of the regime. Alfredo di Stefano goes down in history as one of the best players Spain - and quite possibly the world - has ever seen. He was discovered at a friendly match in Madrid by both the president of Barcelona FC and Franco. Although club president Marti Carreto got a jump on Franco, backroom politics and numerous bribes led di Stefano to sign with Real Madrid. Speculators have even postulated that Franco had certain Barcelona team officials killed to prevent the trade of di Stefano.8 Few instances are better examples of Franco’s authoritarianism. Furthermore, football played a major role in the conflict over una españa. Sports can be used to

4 Ibid. 5 Jorge Tunon and Elisa Brey, “Sports and Politics in Spain,” European Journal for Sport and Society 9, no. 1–2 (2012): 7–32. 6 Christos Kassimeris, “Franco, the Popular Game and Ethnocentric Conduct in Modern Spanish Football,” Soccer & Society 13, no. 4 (2016): 555–69. 7 Pablo Iglesias, “Spain On Edge,” New Left Review 93, no. May/June (2015): 23–42. 8Austin Esecson, Remy Lupica, and Neel Muthana, “Franco Gets His Man,” Duke University, 2009. build national and regional identities, and Franco used Real Madrid FC as a symbol of a centralized identity as well as a pawn against the separatist movement from Catalonia.9

Although Franco’s goal was to unite Spain and create a façade over the misery of the population through football, the only real achievement was instigating the already agitated nationalistic tensions within Spain. In fact, author Manuel Vazquez Montalban wrote telling insight in his historical fiction novel, Offside, remarking that “the epic weapon of a country without a state … El Barca’s victories were like those of Athens over Sparta.”10 One could argue that El Barca’s victories were as exciting for Catalans as they were frustrating for Franco. FC Barcelona’s motto is “mes que un club” meaning more than a club.11 This is certainly a reality considering their role in the historical struggle between Franco’s dictatorship, democracy, and independence. Throughout the 20th century, football clubs in Spain were rallying points for society. Barcelona has maintained this significance to this day.

In addition to portraying Spanish identity internally, Real Madrid was used as the face of the Franco regime abroad. According to social scientist, Kassimaris, “two of the most notable pathological fixations of the Franco dictatorship where anti-communism and anti-.”12 Under Franco’s rule, the Spanish victory over the Soviet Union in the European Championship of 1964 represented a victory of fascism over communism.13 This anti-communist attitude helped maintain the legitimacy of Franco’s rule during the Cold War. The world was less concerned with the dictatorship since the common enemy among the rest of the world was actually communism and the Soviet Union as opposed to fascism. This time, 1960-1970, was also a period of industrialization and tourism which resulted in an opening up of Spain to the world and economic growth.14 This extended to football as Real Madrid FC and FC Barcelona were becoming even more popular on the European stage. Even so, conflict has persisted even beyond the end of Franco’s regime.

Issues and changes in modern society have been reflected in football. Most recently, the 2016 King’s Cup championship game brought controversy when the King attempted to ban Catalonian independence paraphernalia in the stands. For over a century, the Estelada flag representing the Catalan nation has been used to celebrate not only FC Barcelona but the unique culture and traditions of Catalonia as a whole.15 The King ordered police forces to search fans for the flags before entering the stadium. Although the ban was overturned by the Supreme Court, it brings into question the statutes of the 1978 Spanish Constitution.16 Most of the big questions regarding Spain’s future come down to the interpretation of this document in relation to freedom of expression, human rights, and immigration. As they have throughout history, these issues have manifested through football.

9 Tunon and Brey, “Sports and Politics in Spain.” 10Manual Vazquez Montalban, Offside, 2012. 11 Kassimeris, “Franco, the Popular Game and Ethnocentric Conduct in Modern Spanish Football.” 12Ibid. 13 Tunon and Brey, “Sports and Politics in Spain.” 14John A. Crow, “The Valley of the Fallen,” in Spain: The Root and the Flower, 2005. 15 Hooper, “The Catalans.” 16 Matt Vasilogambros, “Why Spain Banned This Flag From a Soccer Game,” The Atlantic, 2016. The Spanish Constitution of 1978 provides protection for all citizens from discrimination based on birth, race, sex, religion, opinion or any other circumstance. However, these protections are limited to Spaniards which has led to a lack of action on the national front and increase of racial discrimination against immigrants.17 These attitudes were exacerbated by the 2004 Madrid bombings which added to xenophobia and stimulated anti-Islamism.18 This xenophobia manifested in a season game between England and Spain in 2004. Spanish coach Luis Aragones was recorded encouraging his players to win using racists remarks against player Thierry Henry who is black. This rhetoric ignited fans on both sides leading to a very intense game that reflected the current tensions in Spain and throughout the UEFA league. In the stands, both sides stood together behind a banner declaring “all united against racism in football,” and proudly listened to the comments from English players supporting tolerance. On the Spanish side, there was also another banner reading “Aragones 1, Henry 0.”19 Perhaps not everyone was united against racism in football. With the current refugee crisis situation and the attempts of the European Union to divide incoming refuges among member states, these cultural attitudes present difficult obstacles.

These attitudes persist today among the Catalan separatist movement. The 2010 World Cup was a test of the new democracy. The Spanish national team, La Roja, represented players from many teams throughout Spain including 7 players from FC Barcelona. National pride was rampant. Spanish newspaper, El País, reported that “not since the Spanish civil war have there been so many flags in the streets.”20 These flags of course were Spanish flags in most of the country. The day before the match was a protest in Catalonia for recognition of their nation status. Catalan flags adorned the streets of Barcelona as well as the festivities following the Spanish win of the world cup. Although all Spaniards were cheering for Spain, most Catalonians were cheering for Catalonia. Although the theory holds that “when the citizenry follows its national team or individual sports heroes, it temporarily forgets about societal conflict and becomes united under a common flag,” there is no accepted common flag in Spain.21 This symbolism of division runs deep. Sociologist, Jose Ignacio Wert, blames any underperformance of Spanish national teams on “anorexic patriotism.”22 He attributes the hesitations and lack of vigor in games, particularly from Basque and Catalan players, to the false sense of patriotism “provoked by have the word España on their shirt.”23 Tensions are still high between Catalonia and the central government. In fact, the Catalan government has signed to secede by 2017.24 Needless to say, El Clasico rivalry is not calming down anytime soon.

Beyond the social, cultural, and political examples of football as civil society, the growth of the league also reflects economic shifts over time. With the economic expansion of Spain in the 1960’s, Spanish football has risen from the national to the international stage. The teams, especially Real Madrid, gained even more international recognition and began trading players internationally. For example, Christiano Ronaldo and Lionnel Messi are more than the world’s

17 William Chislett, Spain: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2013. 18 Kassimeris, “Franco, the Popular Game and Ethnocentric Conduct in Modern Spanish Football.” 19 Henry Winter, “Night of Sham Stuns English Football,” Telegraph UK, 2004. 20 Tunon and Brey, “Sports and Politics in Spain.” 21 Ibid. 22 Ibid. 23 Ibid. 24 Vasilogambros, “Why Spain Banned This Flag From a Soccer Game.” best football players. Representatives of Real Madrid FC and FC Barcelona, respectively, these players are icons, celebrities, and local heroes despite their original nationalities as traded players. This economic expansion has allowed players to become more of celebrities than local heroes. Spanish football has become a major economic stakeholder in the community and national economies. Some even claim FC Barcelona and Real Madrid FC to be “super clubs.”25 In the Champions League championship game in 2014, more than 165 million people in over 200 countries tuned in to watch Real Madrid.26 The business model of Spanish football with strategic branding and an international focus represents the growth of capitalism and the rise of Spain in the EU and global economies. Spanish football is also representative of the economic culture of corruption. Although patronage and client politics have been at the heart of Spanish politics for centuries, many argue that the root of Spanish corruption is the culture of governance.27 This corruption is present in , the Spanish football league, as well. From backroom deals to scandals with official favoritism, few things fire up Spanish rivalries more than corrupt sports officials and businessmen.

Spanish football has been shaped by the political, economic, cultural, and social climate of the time. This makes it an excellent microcosm for watching the Spanish governance take shape over the past century. The result of this study helps us see what the future might hold for Spain. Although political ties to teams are technically gone, families tend to follow the same teams for generations leading to even deeper divisions among fans. How will this play into the historical understanding of the next generation with regard to Francoism? Socially, football has made the issues very clear with regard to racism and xenophobia. How will this take shape in the conversation about the refugee crisis? Economically, the growth of “super clubs” brings up questions about capitalism and the future of economic inequality in Spain. Finally, El Clasico is moving from a question of FC Barcelona vs. Real Madrid FC to the looming and very real question of separatism or unification. With high tensions, Catalan separatism is the conflict of today with questions for tomorrow. Considering these implications, maybe Barcelona had it right saying it is “mes que un club,” or perhaps more simply, we can view Spanish football as “más que un partido.”

25 Matt Andrews, “Being Special: The Rise of Super Clubs in European Football,” 2015. 26 Ibid. 27 Charlemagne, “Why Is Spain so Corrupt?,” The Economist, 2009. Works Cited

Andrews, Matt. “Being Special: The Rise of Super Clubs in European Football,” 2015.

Charlemagne. “Why Is Spain so Corrupt?” The Economist, 2009.

Chislett, William. Spain: What Everyone Needs to Know, 2013.

Crow, John A. “Main Currents of Spanish Thought (1870-1931).” In Spain: The Root and the Flower, 258–83, 2005.

———. “The Valley of the Fallen.” In Spain: The Root and the Flower, 2005.

Esecson, Austin, Remy Lupica, and Neel Muthana. “Franco Gets His Man.” Duke University, 2009.

Hooper, John. “The Catalans.” In The New Spaniards, 252–64, 2006.

Iglesias, Pablo. “Spain On Edge.” New Left Review 93, no. May/June (2015): 23–42.

Kassimeris, Christos. “Franco, the Popular Game and Ethnocentric Conduct in Modern Spanish Football.” Soccer & Society 13, no. 4 (2016): 555–69.

Montalban, Manual Vazquez. Offside, 2012.

Rainbow, Jamie. “Gone but Not Forgotten: Football in the Spanish Civil War.” World Soccer, 2012.

Tunon, Jorge, and Elisa Brey. “Sports and Politics in Spain.” European Journal for Sport and Society 9, no. 1–2 (2012): 7–32.

Vasilogambros, Matt. “Why Spain Banned This Flag From a Soccer Game.” The Atlantic, 2016.

Winter, Henry. “Night of Sham Stuns English Football.” Telegraph UK, 2004.